Marie Violay

An experimental study of the brittle-ductile transition of basalt at oceanic crust pressure and temperature conditions

Received 21 September 2011; revised 10 January 2012; accepted 1 February 2012; published 23 March 2012. [1] The brittle to ductile transition (BDT) in rocks may strongly influence their transport properties (i.e., permeability, porosity topology…) and the maximum depth and temperature where hydrothermal fluids may circulate. To examine this transition in the context of Icelandic crust, we conducted deformation experiments on a glassy basalt (GB) and a glass-free basalt (GFB) under oceanic crust conditions. Mechanical and micro-structural observations at a constant strain rate of 10 � 5 s � 1 and at confining pressure of 100–300 MPa indicate that the rocks are brittle and dilatant up to 700–800 � C. At higher temperatures and effective pressures the deformation mode becomes macroscopically ductile, i.e., deformation is distributed throughout the sample and no localized shear rupture plane develops. The presence of glass is a key component reducing the sample strength and lowering the pressure of the BDT. In the brittle field, strength is consistent with a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion with an internal coefficient of friction of 0.42 for both samples. In the ductile field, strength is strain rate- and temperature-dependent and both samples were characterized by the same stress exponent in the range 3 < n < 4.2 but by very different activation energy QGB =5 9� 15 KJ/mol and QGFB = 456 � 4 KJ/mol. Extrapolation of these results to the Iceland oceanic crust conditions predicts a BDT at � 100 � C for a glassy basalt, whereas the BDT might occur in non-glassy basalts at deeper conditions, i.e., temperatures higher than 550 � 100 � C, in agreement with the Icelandic

Effect of water on the frictional behavior of cohesive rocks during earthquakes

Fluid-rock interactions can control earthquake nucleation and the evolution of earthquake sequences. Experimental studies of fault frictional properties in the presence of fluid can provide unique insights into these interactions. We report the first results from experiments performed on cohesive silicate-bearing rocks (microgabbro) in the presence of pressurized pore fluids (H2O, drained conditions) at realistic seismic deformation conditions. The experimental data are compared with those recently obtained from carbonate-bearing rocks (Carrara marble). Contrary to theoretical arguments, and consistent with the interpretation of some field observations, we show that frictional melting of a microgabbro develops in the presence of water. In microgabbro, the initial weakening mechanism (flash melting of the asperities) is delayed in the presence of water; conversely, in calcite marble the weakening mechanism (brittle failure of the asperities) is favored. This opposite behavior highlights the importance of host-rock composition in controlling dynamic (frictional) weakening in the presence of water: cohesive carbonate-bearing rocks are more prone to slip in the presence of water, whereas the presence of water might delay or inhibit the rupture nucleation and propagation in cohesive silicate-bearing rocks.

Brittle versus ductile deformation as the main control of the deep fluid circulation in oceanic crust

The brittle to ductile transition may strongly influence hydraulic properties of rocks at the depth and temperature ranges that hydrothermal fluids circulate. To examine this transition in the context of the oceanic crust, we conducted a series of deformation experiments on a natural basalt sample at in situ oceanic crust conditions. Dilatancy was measured during deformation. The method consisted in monitoring the volume of pore fluid that flows into or out of the sample at constant pore pressure. Mechanical and microstructural observations at experimental constant strain rate of 10−5 s−1 indicated that the basalt was brittle and dilatant up to 800°C. At higher temperature, the deformation mode became macroscopically ductile and samples compacted. These observations have important implications on heat transfer and fluid migration in oceanic crust.

Fast-moving dislocations trigger flash weakening in carbonate-bearing faults during earthquakes

Rupture fronts can cause fault displacement, reaching speeds up to several ms−1 within a few milliseconds, at any distance away from the earthquake nucleation area. In the case of silicate-bearing rocks the abrupt slip acceleration results in melting at asperity contacts causing a large reduction in fault frictional strength (i.e., flash weakening). Flash weakening is also observed in experiments performed in carbonate-bearing rocks but evidence for melting is lacking. To unravel the micro-physical mechanisms associated with flash weakening in carbonates, experiments were conducted on pre-cut Carrara marble cylinders using a rotary shear apparatus at conditions relevant to earthquakes propagation. In the first 5 mm of slip the shear stress was reduced up to 30% and CO2 was released. Focused ion beam, scanning and transmission electron microscopy investigations of the slipping zones reveal the presence of calcite nanograins and amorphous carbon. We interpret the CO2 release, the formation of nanograins and amorphous carbon to be the result of a shock-like stress release associated with the migration of fast-moving dislocations. Amorphous carbon, given its low friction coefficient, is responsible for flash weakening and promotes the propagation of the seismic rupture in carbonate-bearing fault patches.

Effect of glass on the frictional behavior of basalts at seismic slip rates.

We performed 31 friction experiments on glassy basalts (GB) and glass-free basalts (GFB) at slip rates up to 6.5 m s−1 and normal stress up to 40 MPa (seismic conditions). Frictional weakening was associated to bulk frictional melting and lubrication. The weakening distance (Dw) was about 3 times shorter in GB than in GFB, but the steady state friction was systematically higher in GB than in GFB. The shorter Dw in GB may be explained by the thermal softening occurring at the glass transition temperature (Tg ~500°C), which is lower than the bulk melting temperature (Tm ~1250°C) of GFB. Postexperiment microanalyses suggest that the larger crystal fraction measured in GB melts results in the higher steady state friction value compared to the GFB melts. The effect of interstitial glass is to facilitate frictional instability and rupture propagation in GB with respect to GFB.

Frictional evolution, acoustic emissions activity, and off‐fault damage in simulated faults sheared at seismic slip rates

We present a series of high-velocity friction tests conducted on Westerly granite, using the Slow to HIgh Velocity Apparatus (SHIVA) installed at Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Roma with acoustic emissions (AEs) monitored at high frequency (4 MHz). Both atmospheric humidity and pore fluid (water) pressure conditions were tested, under effective normal stress sigma(eff)(n) in the range 5-20 MPa and at target sliding velocities V-s in the range 0.003-3 m/s. Under atmospheric humidity two consecutive friction drops were observed. The first one is related to flash weakening, and the second one to the formation and growth of a continuous layer of melt in the slip zone. In the presence of fluid, a single drop in friction was observed. Average values of fracture energy are independent of effective normal stress and sliding velocity. However, measurements of elastic wave velocities on the sheared samples suggested that larger damage was induced for 0.1 < V-s < 0.3 m/s. This observation is supported by AEs recorded during the test, most of which were detected after the initiation of the second friction drop, once the fault surface temperature was high. Some AEs were detected up to a few seconds after the end of the experiments, indicating thermal rather than mechanical cracking. In addition, the presence of pore water delayed the onset of AEs by cooling effects and by reducing of the heat produced, supporting the link between AEs and the production and diffusion of heat during sliding. Using a thermoelastic crack model developed by Fredrich and Wong (1986), we confirm that damage may be induced by heat diffusion. Indeed, our theoretical results predict accurately the amount of shortening and shortening rate, supporting the idea that gouge production and gouge comminution are in fact largely controlled by thermal cracking. Finally, we discuss the contribution of thermal cracking in the seismic energy balance. In fact, while a dichotomy exists in the literature regarding the partitioning between fracture and heat energy, the experimental evidence reported here suggests that both contribute to fault weakening and off-fault damage.

An empirically-based steady-state friction law and implications for fault stability

Abstract Empirically based rate‐and‐state friction laws (RSFLs) have been proposed to model the dependence of friction forces with slip and time. The relevance of the RSFL for earthquake mechanics is that few constitutive parameters define critical conditions for fault stability (i.e., critical stiffness and frictional fault behavior). However, the RSFLs were determined from experiments conducted at subseismic slip rates (V < 1 cm/s), and their extrapolation to earthquake deformation conditions (V > 0.1 m/s) remains questionable on the basis of the experimental evidence of (1) large dynamic weakening and (2) activation of particular fault lubrication processes at seismic slip rates. Here we propose a modified RSFL (MFL) based on the review of a large published and unpublished data set of rock friction experiments performed with different testing machines. The MFL, valid at steady state conditions from subseismic to seismic slip rates (0.1 µm/s < V < 3 m/s), describes the initiation of a substantial velocity weakening in the 1–20 cm/s range resulting in a critical stiffness increase that creates a peak of potential instability in that velocity regime. The MFL leads to a new definition of fault frictional stability with implications for slip event styles and relevance for models of seismic rupture nucleation, propagation, and arrest.

Porosity evolution at the brittle-ductile transition in the continental crust: Implications for deep hydro-geothermal circulation

Recently, projects have been proposed to engineer deep geothermal reservoirs in the ductile crust. To examine their feasibility, we performed high-temperature (up to 1000 °C), high-pressure (130 MPa) triaxial experiments on granite (initially-intact and shock-cooled samples) in which we measured the evolution of porosity during deformation. Mechanical data and post-mortem microstuctural characterisation (X-ray computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy) indicate that (1) the failure mode was brittle up to 900 °C (shear fracture formation) but ductile at 1000 °C (no strain localisation); (2) only deformation up to 800 °C was dilatant; (3) deformation at 900 °C was brittle but associated with net compaction due to an increase in the efficiency of crystal plastic processes; (4) ductile deformation at 1000 °C was compactant; (5) thermally-shocking the granite did not influence strength or failure mode. Our data show that, while brittle behaviour increases porosity, porosity loss is associated with both ductile behaviour and transitional behaviour as the failure mode evolves from brittle to ductile. Extrapolating our data to geological strain rates suggests that the brittle-ductile transition occurs at a temperature of 400 ± 100 °C, and is associated with the limit of fluid circulation in the deep continental crust.

G: Fracture energy, friction and dissipation in earthquakes

Recent estimates of fracture energy G′ in earthquakes show a power-law dependence with slip u which can be summarized as G′ ∝ ua where a is a positive real slightly larger than one. For cracks with sliding friction, fracture energy can be equated to Gf: the post-failure integral of the dynamic weakening curve. If the dominant dissipative process in earthquakes is friction, G′ and Gf should be comparable and show a similar scaling with slip. We test this hypothesis by analyzing experiments performed on various cohesive and non-cohesive rock types, under wet and dry conditions, with imposed deformation typical of seismic slip (normal stress of tens of MPa, target slip velocity > 1 m/s and fast accelerations ≈ 6.5 m/s2). The resulting fracture energy Gf is similar to the seismological estimates, with Gf and G′ being comparable over most of the slip range. However, Gf appears to saturate after several meters of slip, while in most of the reported earthquake sequences, G′ appears to increase further and surpasses Gf at large magnitudes. We analyze several possible causes of such discrepancy, in particular, additional off-fault damage in large natural earthquakes.

Dynamic weakening during earthquakes controlled by fluid thermodynamics

Earthquakes result from weakening of faults (transient decrease in friction) during co-seismic slip. Dry faults weaken due to degradation of fault asperities by frictional heating (e.g. flash heating). In the presence of fluids, theoretical models predict faults to weaken by thermal pressurization of fault fluid. However, experimental evidence of rock/fluid interactions during dynamic rupture under realistic stress conditions remains poorly documented. Here we demonstrate that the relative contribution of thermal pressurization and flash heating to fault weakening depends on fluid thermodynamic properties. Our dynamic records of laboratory earthquakes demonstrate that flash heating drives strength loss under dry and low (1 MPa) fluid pressure conditions. Conversely, flash heating is inhibited at high fluid pressure (25 MPa) because water’s liquid–supercritical phase transition buffers frictional heat. Our results are supported by flash-heating theory modified for pressurized fluids and by numerical modelling of thermal pressurization. The heat buffer effect has maximum efficiency at mid-crustal depths (~2–5 km), where many anthropogenic earthquakes nucleate.Understanding the physics of fault lubrication during earthquake propagation can help assess seismic hazard. In this study, by replicating earthquakes in the laboratory at upper-crustal conditions, the authors show that fluid thermodynamics control fault lubrication, specifically at man-made earthquake depths.