Mariëtte Huizinga

Age-related change in executive function: developmental trends and a latent variable analysis.

This study examined the developmental trajectories of three frequently postulated executive function (EF) components, Working Memory, Shifting, and Inhibition of responses, and their relation to performance on standard, but complex, neuropsychological EF tasks, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), and the Tower of London (ToL). Participants in four age groups (7-, 11-, 15-, and 21-year olds) carried out nine basic experimental tasks (three tasks for each EF), the WCST, and the ToL. Analyses were done in two steps: (1) analyses of (co)variance to examine developmental trends in individual EF tasks while correcting for basic processing speed, (2) confirmatory factor analysis to extract latent variables from the nine basic EF tasks, and to explain variance in the performance on WCST and ToL, using these latent variables. Analyses of (co)variance revealed a continuation of EF development into adolescence. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded two common factors: Working Memory and Shifting. However, the variables assumed to tap Inhibition proved unrelated. At a latent level, again correcting for basic processing speed, the development of Shifting was seen to continue into adolescence, while Working Memory continued to develop into young-adulthood. Regression analyses revealed that Working Memory contributed most strongly to WCST performance in all age groups. These results suggest that EF component processes develop at different rates, and that it is important to recognize both the unity and diversity of EF component processes in studying the development of EF.

Age-related changes in executive function: A normative study with the Dutch version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF).

This study examined age-related change in executive function by using a Dutch translation of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF; Gioia et al., 2000) that was applied to a normative sample (age range 5–18 years). In addition, we examined the reliability and factorial structures of the Dutch BRIEF. Results with respect to age revealed a decrease in reported executive function problems with increasing age. On the Behavior Regulation Index (BRI), 5- to 8-year-olds showed significantly more executive function problems than 9- to 11-year-olds, as did the 12- to 14-year-olds compared to 15- to 18-year-olds (except on the Shift subscale). On the Metacognition Index, we found that 9- to 11-year-olds differed significantly from 5- to 8-year-olds on the Working Memory subscale. In addition, the current study showed that the internal consistency of the Dutch BRIEF is very high, and that this version of the BRIEF has a high test-retest stability. Item factor analysis confirmed the expected eight common factor model, and factor analysis of the eight test scores confirmed the two-factor model, as proposed by Gioia et al., in the Dutch data.

Impaired executive function in male MDMA (“ecstasy”) users

RationaleLong-term users of ecstasy have shown impaired performance on a multitude of cognitive abilities (most notably memory, attention, executive function). Research into the pattern of MDMA effects on executive functions remains fragmented, however.ObjectivesTo determine more systematically what aspects of executive function are affected by a history of MDMA use, by using a model that divides executive functions into cognitive flexibility, information updating and monitoring, and inhibition of pre-potent responses.MethodsMDMA users and controls who abstained from ecstasy and other substances for at least 2 weeks were tested with a computerized cognitive test battery to assess their abilities on tasks that measure the three submodalities of executive function, and their combined contribution on two more complex executive tasks. Because of sex-differential effects of MDMA reported in the literature, data from males and females were analyzed separately.ResultsMale MDMA users performed significantly worse on the tasks that tap on cognitive flexibility and on the combined executive function tasks; no differences were found on the other cognitive tasks. Female users showed no impairments on any of the tasks.ConclusionsThe present data suggest that a history of MDMA use selectively impairs executive function. In male users, cognitive flexibility was impaired and increased perseverative behavior was observed. The inability to adjust behavior rapidly and flexibly may have repercussions for daily life activities.

Age-group differences in set-switching and set-maintenance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

This study examined developmental change in set-switching and set-maintenance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), and sought to determine how executive function (EF) components (i.e., Working Memory, Shifting and Inhibition) may contribute to the observed changes on WCST performance. To this end, performance in four age groups (7-year-olds, 11-year-olds, 15-year-olds, and 21-year-olds) was measured on the WCST, and on three EF tasks assumed to tap Working Memory, Shifting, and Inhibition. The results showed that adult levels of performance were reached in 11-year-olds for set-switching, and in 15-year-olds for set-maintenance. A subsequent principal component analysis revealed that set-switching and set-maintenance loaded on two factors for 7-year-olds, but a single factor in the other age groups. Finally, regression analyses yielded a complex pattern of results concerning the prediction of set-switching and set-maintenance by the performance on tasks used to assess the EF components. The results were interpreted to suggest distinct developmental trends in set-switching and set-maintenance abilities required by the WCST.

Profiling Fragile X Syndrome in Males: Strengths and weaknesses in cognitive abilities

The present study examined the cognitive profile in Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) males, and investigated whether cognitive profiles are similar for FXS males at different levels of intellectual functioning. Cognitive abilities in non-verbal, verbal, memory and executive functioning domains were contrasted to both a non-verbal and verbal mental age reference. Model-based cluster analyses revealed three distinct subgroups which differed in level of functioning, but showed similar cognitive profiles. Results showed that cognitive performance is particularly weak on measures of reasoning- and performal abilities confined to abstract item content, but relatively strong on measures of visuo-perceptual recognition and vocabulary. Further, a significant weakness was found for verbal short-term memory. Finally, these results indicated that the choice of an appropriate reference is critically important in examining cognitive profiles. The pattern of findings that emerged from the current cognitive profiling of FXS males was interpreted to suggest a fundamental deficit in executive control.

The development and preliminary validation of the Tower of Hanoi-revised.

The objective of this study was to redesign the Tower of Hanoi (TOH) in order to increase the reliability and explore the validity of the task. In order to achieve this goal, a two-phase process was undertaken. In Phase 1, the TOH item pool was enlarged from 12 items to 60 items, and the task was administered to a sample of college students (N = 81). The 22 most homogeneous items for the final task were identified based on the item-total correlations. In Phase 2, the rebuilt TOH (TOH-R) was administered to a second sample (N = 50). The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach alpha) was .77 for this new sample. In this phase, the TOH-R was administered concurrently with the Tower of London-Revised (TOL-R), and the convergent validity of the TOH-R against the TOL-R was .53.

Media use and ADHD-related behaviors in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis

There are several theoretical reasons to believe that media use might be related to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or ADHD-related behaviors (i.e., attention problems, hyperactivity, and impulsivity). Although studies into the media-ADHD relationship have accumulated, they have yielded inconsistent results. Therefore, we still do not know whether childrens media use and ADHD-related behaviors are related and, if so, under which conditions. To fill this gap in the literature, we first identified 6 different hypotheses that may explain why media use in general and viewing fast-paced or violent media content might be related to 1 or more ADHD-related behaviors. Subsequently, we conducted a meta-analysis of 45 empirical studies investigating the relationship between media use and ADHD-related behaviors in children and adolescents. Our results indicated a small significant relationship between media use and ADHD-related behaviors (r+ = .12). Finally, we identified several specific gaps in the existing literature and presented 5 crucial directions for future research.

The Relationship Between Media Multitasking and Executive Function in Early Adolescents

The increasing prevalence of media multitasking among adolescents is concerning because it may be negatively related to goal-directed behavior. This study investigated the relationship between media multitasking and executive function in 523 early adolescents (aged 11-15; 48% girls). The three central components of executive functions (i.e., working memory, shifting, and inhibition) were measured using self-reports and standardized performance-based tasks (Digit Span, Eriksen Flankers task, Dots–Triangles task). Findings show that adolescents who media multitask more frequently reported having more problems in the three domains of executive function in their everyday lives. Media multitasking was not related to the performance on the Digit Span and Dots–Triangles task. Adolescents who media multitasked more frequently tended to be better in ignoring irrelevant distractions in the Eriksen Flankers task. Overall, results suggest that media multitasking is negatively related to executive function in everyday life.

Task Switching and Shifting between Stopping and Going: Developmental Change in between-Trial Control Adjustments.

This study set out to investigate developmental differences in the ability to switch between choice tasks and to shift between Go/NoGo and choice tasks. Three age groups (7-year-olds, 11-year-olds, and young adults) were asked to consider the shape or color of a bivalued target stimulus. The participants performed a switch task in which a cue signaled the task to be performed (i.e., respond to shape vs. respond to color) and a shift task in which a cue instructed them to make a choice reaction to the shape of the stimulus or to respond (Go) versus inhibit (NoGo) to the color of the stimulus. The ability to switch was examined by considering choice-choice switches versus choice-choice repeats. The ability to shift was examined by considering NoGo-to-choice shifts versus choice-choice repeats and NoGo-to-Go shifts versus Go-Go repeats. The results showed that responding on Go trials was delayed following response inhibition on a NoGo trial. This delay did not discriminate between age groups. Responding on choice trials was considerably slowed when following response inhibition on NoGo trials. This slowing decreased with advancing age. Finally, responses on switch trials were slower compared with repeat trials, and this slowing was disproportionately large in young children compared with the other two age groups. This pattern of findings was interpreted in terms of a generic mechanism involving between-trial control adjustments in the setting of response thresholds that are likely to be mediated by a complex neural network implicating the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the presupplementary motor cortex.

The potential adverse effect of energy drinks on executive functions in early adolescence.

Introduction: Manufacturers of energy drinks (EDs) claim their products improve cognitive performance. Young adolescents are in a critical developmental phase. The impact of ED intake on their development is not yet clear. Therefore, we studied the associations of both caffeine intake and ED consumption with executive functions (EFs), and the role of pubertal status and sleeping problems. Methods: A sample of 509 participants (mean age: 13.1 years, SD 0.85; age range: 11–16 years) participated in the study. The level of pubertal development was classified in five pubertal status categories. Participants were asked to report their caffeine (for example coffee) and ED consumption for each day of the week. In addition, they indicated sleep quality by reporting problems falling asleep or waking up and/or interrupted sleep. EFs were assessed by self- and parent reports of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). Results: Consuming on average one or more ED(s) a day was associated with more problems in self-reported behavior regulation and metacognition, and with more problems in parent-reported metacognition. Only high caffeine consumption (two or more cups a day) was associated with parent-reported problems with metacognition. The sum of caffeine and ED use was associated with a higher amount of problems with self-reported metacognition and parent reported behavior regulation. The effect estimates for the association between caffeine and ED use combined and EFs did not exceed those of EDs or caffeine separately. Adjusting for pubertal status, gender, educational level, number of sleeping problems and hours of sleep did not change the effect estimates substantially. Conclusion: The observed associations between ED consumption and EFs suggest that regular consumption of EDs—even in moderate amounts—may have a negative impact on daily life behaviors related to EF in young adolescents.