Marija Baranac-Stojanović

New insight into the anisotropic effects in solution-state NMR spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is an important technique for structure determination. Within it, anisotropic effects of different functional groups and ring systems, depicted as familiar “anisotropy cones”, are broadly used to deduce the stereochemistry, for chemical shift assignments and to explain shielding or deshielding of nuclei spatially close, or directly attached to the corresponding functional group, or ring. Progress in computational methods has enabled the quantification of anisotropic effects, an insight into their origin and to the source of (de)shielding of proximal nucleus. Some widely accepted traditional explanations, presented in NMR spectroscopy textbooks, have been questioned. The purpose of this review is to collect and discuss the research, mainly based on theoretical calculations, that provided new insight into the anisotropic effects, their origin and factors responsible for (de)shielding of proximal protons.

Aromaticity and Stability of Azaborines

The influence of the relative boron and nitrogen positions on aromaticity of the three isomeric 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-azaborines has been investigated by computing the extra cyclic resonance energy, NICS(0)πzz index and by visualizing the π-electron (de)shielding pattern as a response of the π system to a perpendicular magnetic field. The origin of the known stability trend, in which the 1,2-/1,3-isomer is the most/least stable, was examined by using an isomerization energy decomposition analysis. The 1,3-arrangement of B and N atoms creates a charge separation in the π-electron system, which was found to be responsible for the lowest stability of 1,3-azaborine. This charge separation can, in turn, be considered as a driving force for the strongest cyclic π-electron delocalization, making this same isomer the most aromatic. Despite the well-known fact that the BN bond attenuates electron delocalization due to large electronegativity difference between the atoms, the 1,4-B,N relationship reduces aromaticity to a greater extent by making the π-electron delocalization more one-directional (from N to B) than cyclic. Thus, 1,4-azaborine was found to be the least aromatic. Its lower stability with respect to the 1,2-isomer was explained by the larger exchange repulsion.

Is the Conventional Interpretation of the Anisotropic Effects of CC Double Bonds and Aromatic Rings in NMR Spectra in Terms of the π‐Electron Shielding/Deshielding Contributions Correct?

Based on the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) concept, isotropic magnetic shielding values have been computed along the three Cartesian axes for ethene, cyclobutadiene, benzene, naphthalene, and benzocyclobutadiene, starting from the molecular/ring center up to 10 Å away. These through-space NMR spectroscopic shielding (TSNMRS) values, which reflect the anisotropic effects, have been broken down into contributions from localized- and canonical molecular orbitals (LMOs and CMOs); these contributions revealed that the proton NMR spectroscopic chemical shifts of nuclei that are spatially close to the C=C double bond or the aromatic ring should not be explained in terms of the conventionally accepted π-electron shielding/deshielding effects. In fact, these effects followed the predictions only for the antiaromatic cyclobutadiene ring.

Theoretical analysis of the rotational barrier in ethane: cause and consequences

On the basis of energy decomposition analysis, the rotational energy profile of ethane is explained by using two models: rigid rotation with instantaneous geometry relaxations of the eclipsed and staggered conformations and relaxed rotation with continuous geometry relaxations. Both models can be applied to the real system. A distinction between the cause of an initial energy rise and energetic consequences of structural changes accompanying the rotation is made. It is concluded that the increased Pauli repulsion is the main cause for the initial energy rise and geometry changes. However, after the structural changes take place, the Pauli repulsion is not responsible for the higher energy of the eclipsed state. It then originates from energetic consequences of geometry changes, which include decrease in electrostatic and orbital stabilization energies, mainly due to the C–C bond lengthening, and an energy rise due to methyl groups bending.

Origin of Fluorine/Sulfur Gauche Effect of β-Fluorinated Thiol, Sulfoxide, Sulfone, and Thionium Ion.

The well-known gauche preference in FCCX systems, where X is an electronegative element from Period 2, is widely exploited in synthetic, medicinal, and material chemistry. It is rationalized on the basis of σ(C-H) → σ*(C-F) hyperconjugation and electrostatic interactions. The recent report (Thiehoff, C.; et al. Chem. Sci. 2015, 6, 3565) showed that the fluorine gauche effect can extend to Period 3 elements, such as sulfur. The aim of the present work is to disclose factors governing conformational behavior of FCCS containing systems. We examine conformational preferences in seven classes of compounds by ab initio and DFT calculations and rationalize the results by quantitatively decomposing the anti/gauche isomerization energy into contributions from electrostatic, orbital, dispersion, and Pauli interactions, and energy spent on structural changes. The results show that the fluorine/sulfur gauche effect is primarily electrostatic (63-75%), while all orbital interactions contribute 22-41% to stabilizing interactions. Stereoelectronic effects, involved in orbital interactions, also play a role in gauche conformer stabilization.

Gauche preference in 1,2-difluoroethane originates from both orbital and electrostatic stabilization interactions

The origin of the gauche preference in 1,2-difluoroethane has been investigated by using an energy decomposition analysis (EDA). The EDA results show that favourable orbital interactions are not the sole source of stabilization in this conformer. Electrostatic interactions, too, are more attractive in the gauche than in the anti form. This finding opposes our traditional view of electrostatic interactions and their influence on conformational equilibria, but points out that they should be considered as an all-charge phenomenon, rather than partial interaction between pairs of bonds.

1H NMR chemical shifts of cyclopropane and cyclobutane: a theoretical study.

This study was undertaken in order to rationalize the peculiar (1)H NMR chemical shifts of cyclopropane (δ 0.22) and cyclobutane (δ 1.98) which are shifted upfield and downfield with respect to larger cycloalkanes (δ 1.44-1.54). This is conventionally accounted for by shielding contributions arising from an aromatic-like ring current in cyclopropane, involving six electrons in the three C-C bonds, and deshielding coming from the σ antiaromatic CC framework of cyclobutane. The shielding pattern arising from the cyclopropane and cyclobutane CC framework response to a perpendicular magnetic field was visualized as two-dimensional grid distribution of NICS values. Further insight into the origin of chemical shift values was obtained by the NCS-NBO analysis of proton shielding tensor. In the case of cyclopropane, the CC framework shielding pattern implies the existence of both delocalized and localized currents that have a dominant shielding effect on protons. The magnitude of C-H bonds shielding effect is significant, too. Unlike the conventional interpretation, the CC framework shields cyclobutane hydrogens, and its response to a perpendicular magnetic field is quite similar to responses of other planar σ CC frameworks.

Density Functional Calculations of the Anisotropic Effects of Borazine and 1,3,2,4‐Diazadiboretidine

On the basis of the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) concept, the anisotropic effects of two inorganic rings, namely, borazine and planar 1,3,2,4-diazadiboretidine, are quantitatively calculated and visualized as isochemical shielding surfaces (ICSSs). Dissection of magnetic shielding values along the three Cartesian axes into contributions from σ and π bonds by the natural chemical shielding-natural bond orbital (NCS-NBO) method revealed that their appearance is not a simple reflection of the extent of (anti)aromaticity.

Quantification of the aromaticity of 2-alkylidenethiazolines subjected to push-pull activity.

Through-space NMR shieldings (TSNMRSs) of a series of 2-alkylidenethiazolines subjected to push-pull activity have been calculated by the GIAO method employing the nucleus-independent chemical shift (NICS) concept and visualized as iso-chemical-shielding surfaces (ICSSs). The ICSSs were applied to quantify and visualize the degree of aromaticity of the studied compounds, which has been shown to be in excellent correlation with the push-pull behavior, quantified by the quotient (π*/π) method. Dissection of the absolute magnetic shielding values into individual contributions of bonds and lone pairs by the natural chemical shielding-natural bond orbital (NCS-NBO) analysis has revealed unexpected details.

Aromaticity of Diazaborines and Their Protonated Forms

Substitution of a CH group in benzene with nitrogen has a little effect on its aromaticity (Wang et al., Org. Lett. 2010, 12, 4824). How does the same type of substitution affect aromatic character of the three isomeric azaborines? Does further protonation change aromaticity of diazaborines? This work is aimed at answering these questions. Such a knowledge should be of interest for further exploration and application of BN/CC isosterism. Aromaticity of diazaborines and their protonated forms is studied with the aid of four aromaticity indices, HOMA, NICS(0)πzz, PDI and ECRE. Generally, NICS(0)πzz and PDI point to similar aromaticity of diazaborines and their parent azaborines, while HOMA and ECRE indicate some changes. Thus, aromaticity of 1,2-azaborine slightly decreases/increases when CH meta/ortho,para to B is substituted with nitrogen. Aromaticity of the most aromatic 1,3-azaborine remains almost unchanged when CH meta to B and N is replaced with nitrogen, and becomes slightly weaker when any other CH group is substituted with nitrogen. Replacement of the CH ortho to N in 1,4-azaborine does not change much its cyclic delocalization, while replacement of the CH ortho to B leads to smaller cyclic delocalization. Protonated forms are either of similar or decreased aromaticity compared with neutral molecules.