Marilyn McMahon

The effect of the enhanced cognitive interview on recall and confidence in elderly adults

Early research with the cognitive interview suggested that it is a useful investigative technique to obtain information from eyewitnesses to crime. The cognitive interview appeared to increase the recall of correct information without a concomitant increase in the recall of incorrect details or confabulation. More recent research has failed to replicate original findings and has frequently reported increased recall of incorrect information and/or confabulation. Although the cognitive interview has been used with diverse interviewees, it has rarely been used with elderly adults, a group known to present difficulties as eyewitnesses. This study compared the efficacy of the enhanced cognitive interview with a structured interview in obtaining information from younger (18–50 years) and older (60+ years) adults who viewed a film of a simulated crime (armed robbery). The memory performance of participants was investigated in relation to total correct, incorrect and confabulated information recalled about key aspects of a crime and the offenders. Additionally, the confidence of participants recall of information was investigated. Results from the current study indicated that recall of correct, incorrect and confabulated information was not significantly different in the cognitive and structured interview conditions. However, younger adults recalled significantly more correct information than older adults, although both age groups did not differ significantly in the amount of incorrect information recalled or the number of confabulations. Confidence in recall of information was not significantly related to age or interview condition. The implications of the results for the use of the cognitive interview with elderly eyewitnesses are discussed.

Expectations and preferences regarding confidentiality in the psychologist-client relationship

Two hundred and fifty-six members of the Australian public were surveyed regarding situations in which a psychologist might breach confidentiality and third parties to whom information might be disclosed. There was strong agreement between respondents expectations about the way in which psychologists would act, and their preferences regarding how psychologists should act. While respondents supported confidentiality within the psychotherapeutic relationship, they clearly distinguished situations in which, and third parties to whom, disclosure could appropriately occur. Disclosure was expected and preferred when a client revealed a murder (planned or confessed), suicide plans, child abuse, or treason, and where the recipients of the information were colleagues of the psychologist or parents of a client younger than 13 years. Compared to nonparents, parents more strongly supported disclosure regarding illegal drug use and child abuse, and believed that parents should have access to a childs records. In general, respondents view of the way in which psychologists should treat confidentiality issues were consistent with the guidelines prescribed by the Australian Psychological Society in the Code of Professional Conduct (1986).

Dangerousness, Confidentiality, and the Duty to Protect

Abstract Concern for the possible legal liabilities of psychologists involved in the provision of services to the dangerous outpatient client has increased recently. The competing interests of the obligation of confidentiality towards the client and public interest in disclosure raise substantive ethical and legal issues that have not yet been explored in Australia. The matter is further complicated by epistemic problems concerning definitions of dangerousness, and accuracy in predicting future violent behaviour. Examination of American legal precedents reveals that in several states of the U.S.A. such difficulties have not precluded the imposition of legal liability on psychologists for the violent acts of their clients—thus resulting in the controversial duty to protect. Although Australian courts may be less willing to find that psychologists have a duty to protect the intended victims of their outpatient clients, it is suggested that psychologists should carefully review their practice when dealing wi...

Attributions about domestic violence: A study of community attitudes

Attributions of responsibility and causality, and other beliefs about behaviours and affective states of individuals in domestic violence situations, were investigated in interviews with 188 men and women (aged 18 to 65 years) in six suburban locations in Melbourne, Australia. Participants were selected using a stratified random sampling procedure designed to include persons from three different socio‐economic levels. Two vignettes depicting a mans physical and verbal abuse of his female partner were presented. In one scenario, the battered woman kills her abuser; the other scenario shows the abuser being taken away by police. The results indicated that attributions of responsibility were best predicted by beliefs about the impact of alcohol and the extent to which the actors could predict control and moderate violent behaviour. Most respondents believed the battered woman acted in self‐defence and should not be found guilty of murder for killing the perpetrator. The findings are discussed in relation to...

Psychologists' and psychiatrists' perceptions of the dangerous client

This study aimed to identify factors that influence psychologists and psychiatrists to perceive a client as dangerous, to establish the incidence of such clients and to identify actions taken in relation to their treatment The dangerous client was identified as one who posed a risk of physical harm to another. Two hundred and sixty‐two psychologists and 67 psychiatrists were surveyed. Respondents provided details about the most recent case in which they had treated a client whom they perceived to be dangerous. Overall, results indicated that dealing with the dangerous client was a common issue for respondents and that third parties were frequently notified when a client was perceived as likely to physically harm another. A profile of clients perceived to be dangerous was described. Criteria used by respondents to identify the dangerous client were compared with criteria identified in the literature. The significance of these results in the context of contemporary discussion of a “duty to protect third par...

Battered women and bad science: The limited validity and utility of battered woman syndrome

In 1991 the Supreme Court of South Australia held that evidence of battered woman syndrome had been erroneously excluded from the trial of two female defendants. The Chief Justice commented that battered woman syndrome appeared to be a ‘recognised facet of clinical psychology’ and that ‘methodical studies by trained psychologists’ had revealed typical patterns of behaviour for abusive males and their female victims (R v Runjanjic and Kontinnen. 1991, p. 118 per King CJ). This article critically examines the scientific basis and status of battered woman syndrome with particular focus on the methodology and conclusions of Lenore Walker, the psychologist who is generally credited with developing and promoting this syndrome. Other relevant studies that utilise the concept of battered woman syndrome are also examined. Problems are identified in the definition, conceptualisation and utilisation of the syndrome, and substantial methodological deficiencies are noted in the key empirical studies upon which the syn...

Confidentiality in Psychological Practice: A Decrepit Concept?

Although the principle of confidentiality in the relationship between psychologists and client has been vaunted, and is emphasised in the Australian Psychological Societys Code of Professional Conduct (the APS code; 1994), the confidentiality of this relationship is circumscribed by the absence of legal protections, the ethical beliefs of psychologists, institutional practices, and the provisions of the APS code itself. Lack of privilege in judicial proceedings, and statutory obligations to report certain types of behaviour, mandate breaches of confidentiality in some circumstances. Ethical beliefs of psychologists may support disclosure, especially where it is believed that there is danger of serious physical harm to the client or others. Multidisciplinary teams and institutional settings require the exchange of information for optimal delivery of services. Recent amendments to the APS code may require disclosure without the clients consent when a client is believed to be suicidal. Such developments, when considered at all, are typically regarded as exceptions to a general obligation of confidentiality. However, discussion of exceptions presupposes agreement on fundamental principle: the significance of, and rationale for, confidentiality in the psychologist-client relationship. It is argued in this paper that the obligation of confidentiality has been assumed rather than vigorously analysed and empirically explored. A critical examination of this obligation is the most appropriate starting point for the rehabilitation of contemporary principles of confidentiality in the psychologist-client relationship.

The relationship between coping strategies and interrogative suggestibility

Interrogative suggestibility refers to the tendency of individuals to accept suggestive information in an interrogative context. Within the criminal justice system, this factor has substantial implications in relation to the obtaining of written statements, admissions from suspects, and, most importantly, false confessions. Gudjonsson and Clark (1986) have developed a theoretical model of suggestibility, and contend that suggestibility is mediated by an individuals cognitive abilities, mental state and personality characteristics. In particular, they emphasise the role of coping strategies, positing that active/problem‐focused coping strategies lead to greater resistance to suggestive information whilst avoidant/emotion‐focused strategies lead to increased susceptibility to accepting suggestive information. The current study evaluated this aspect of Gudjonsson and Clarks (1986) model, using the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (Gudjonsson, 1984) and the COPE (Carver, Scheier & Weintraub, 1989) inventory. Additionally, it was evaluated whether dispositional or situational coping strategies would be a better predictor of interrogative suggestibility. Sixty‐one participants completed both measures in the belief that they were participating in an investigation into memory. The results failed to support the hypothesized relationship between methods of coping and levels of interrogative suggestibility. Additionally, neither situational nor dispositional coping strategies were found to better predict interrogative suggestibility. The results are discussed in terms of Gudjonssons (1988) previous findings and current theories on coping behaviour.

Criminalising professional misconduct: Legislative regulation of psychotherapist‐patient sex

The move to criminalise sexual misconduct by psychotherapists is neither new nor driven solely by consumer groups. More than 20 years ago Masters and Johnson (1976) argued that sexual relationships between patients and therapists should make the therapist criminally liable for rape, irrespective of whether the patient had consented. A recent trend in the United States that is increasingly receiving attention in Australia is the move to explicitly and specifically criminalise this form of professional misconduct via the introduction of ‘sexual exploitation’ statutes. These statutes typically prohibit sexual contact between psychotherapists (usually defined to include psychiatrists and other medical practitioners and psychologists) and their patients, and provide criminal penalties for psychotherapists who engage in this behaviour. This legislative development has been part of a package of reforms introduced in recent years to deal with the sexual misconduct of psychotherapists; other initiatives include th...