Marina Butovskaya

Cross-Cultural Analysis of Social Competence and Behavior Problems in Preschoolers.

A multi-national study using the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation Inventory (SCBE-30) was conducted to investigate preschool childrens social and emotional development across cultures. A total of 4,640 children from eight participating countries, including Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United States were evaluated by their preschool teachers. The main objective of the study was to validate the SCBE-30 in each country and build a cross-cultural data set for the investigation of universals, as well as cultural differences, in the development of preschool childrens social competence and the frequency and type of their behavioral problems. Results provide a clear case for the structural equivalence of the SCBE-30 across all samples, for universals in the structure of early social behavior, and possibly some differences that may be attributed to culture. The pattern of gender differences found in North American samples was found to generalize across cultural contexts as preschool boys were universally reported to be significantly more aggressive and viewed as less socially competent than girls. Age differences were also found in all eight samples reflecting increasing competence in older children, however age trends in the prevalence of behavior problems were culture specific.

Sources of Marital Conflict in Five Cultures

This analysis of previously collected data examined four fitness-relevant issues for their possible role in marital conflict. These were sex, finances, division of labor, and raising children, selected in light of their pertinence to sex differences in reproductive strategies. Over 2,000 couples in five diverse cultures were studied. Marital conflict was assessed by the Problems with Partner scale, which was previously shown to demonstrate measurement invariance across cultures and genders. All four issues were significantly related to perceived marital problems in almost all cases. Thus, conflict tended to arise around issues relevant to reproductive strategies. A few cultural idiosyncrasies emerged and are discussed. In all cultures, wives reported more problems than husbands. Another important issue was kindness. The results suggest that a key factor in marital success or failure may be kindness necessary to sustain this prolonged and intimate relationship of cooperation for raising ones offspring.

Aggression, friendship, and reconciliation in Russian primary schoolchildren

Aggression and reconciliation were studied in a group of 6- to 7-year-old Russian school-children using the matched control approach and the two methods used in primate ethology-the postconflict period-matched control period and the time rule methods. Aggression was found to be positively correlated with friendly behavior at the dyadic level. It is demonstrated that children, like nonhuman primates, tend to reconcile within 1 min after the conflict, Victims tend to redirect aggression at other individuals. No effect of gender on reconciliation was found. The reconciliation tendency is less expressed in friends than in children who are not friends. A new reconciliation measure is introduced, and an operational definition of friendship is suggested.

Aggression, digit ratio, and variation in the androgen receptor, serotonin transporter, and dopamine D4 receptor genes in African foragers: the Hadza.

The role of genes in the expression of aggression and masculinity traits in humans has been a focus of recent behavioral genetic studies. This is the first study on the variation in aggression, the digit ratio (the ratio between the second and the fourth digits, 2D:4D), the directional asymmetry in 2D:4D (DR-L) and polymorphisms of the AR, DRD4, and 5-HTTL genes in simple hunter-gatherers, namely the Hadza of Tanzania (142 adult men). The distribution of AR, DRD4E3, and 5-HTTLPR genotypes and allele frequencies in Hadza was compared to other African populations on which the data were available. Hadza and Ariaal differed significantly in the distributions of frequencies of AR alleles with different numbers of CAG repeats. Hadza population was similar to other African populations in the distribution of allelic frequencies of the DRD4E3 locus, and to Afro-Americans in the distribution of allelic types of the 5-HTTLPR locus. We found no influence of AR gene on the right hand 2D:4D ratio, DR-L, and any of aggression subscales of the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (AQ). Although, a weak positive correlation between CAG repeats and the left hand 2D:4D was found. The multiple regression analysis with digit ratios, DR-L and aggression subscales of AQ as dependent variables and the three gene candidates (AR, DRD4E3, and 5-HTTLPR) as independent variables revealed the following: men with lower number of CAG repeats had significantly lower left hand 2D:4D ratio; men with higher numbers of 48-bp unit copies in exon 3 of a VNTR polymorphism in the DRD4 gene had significantly lower digit ratios on both hands; no effect of the 5-HTTLPR gene on either the digit ratio or aggressive behavior. These findings demonstrate the complexity of gene effects on digit ratios and aggression and call for simultaneous analysis of more candidate genes. It is noteworthy that these results were obtained for a human population that is still practicing foraging and has been subjected to a high selective pressure due to harsh environments and practically has no access to modern medical care. Hadza are highly egalitarian, and their culture does not favor persons with a dominant or aggressive behavior. It is still to be found to what extent the relationships observed in this study are similar to those in other human populations.

Hierarchical steepness and phylogenetic models: phylogenetic signals in Macaca

Phylogenetic models of primate social behaviour posit that core social traits are inherent species characteristics that depend largely on phylogenetic histories of species rather than on adaptation to current socioecological conditions. These models predict that aspects of social structure will vary more between species than within species and that they will display strong phylogenetic signals. We tested these predictions in macaques focusing on dominance gradients, a relatively little studied, yet central, aspect of social structure. We used data from 14 social groups representing nine macaque species living in a variety of conditions. We examined proportions of counteraggression and two recently developed measures of dominance gradients (hierarchical steepness) for phylogenetic signals in nine phylogenetic trees constructed using (1) available genetic data sets and (2) Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) and maximum likelihood algorithms. Hierarchical steepness and counteraggression showed significant variation between species but inconsistent variation within species. Both steepness and counteraggression showed evidence of phylogenetic signals, with results being particularly strong for one steepness measure and for counteraggression. Our results suggest that between-species variation in some core aspects of social structure are shaped by species’ evolutionary relationships, despite differences in living conditions. As such, they provide broad support for the phylogenetic model.

Hierarchical Steepness, Counter-Aggression, and Macaque Social Style Scale

Nonhuman primates show remarkable variation in several aspects of social structure. One way to characterize this variation in the genus Macaca is through the concept of social style, which is based on the observation that several social traits appear to covary with one another in a linear or at least continuous manner. In practice, macaques are more simply characterized as fitting a four‐grade scale in which species range from extremely despotic (grade 1) to extremely tolerant (grade 4). Here, we examine the fit of three core measures of social style—two measures of dominance gradients (hierarchical steepness) and another closely related measure (counter‐aggression)—to this scale, controlling for phylogenetic relationships. Although raw scores for both steepness and counter‐aggression correlated with social scale in predicted directions, the distributions appeared to vary by measure. Counter‐aggression appeared to vary dichotomously with scale, with grade 4 species being distinct from all other grades. Steepness measures appeared more continuous. Species in grades 1 and 4 were distinct from one another on all measures, but those in the intermediate grades varied inconsistently. This confirms previous indications that covariation is more readily observable when comparing species at the extreme ends of the scale than those in intermediate positions. When behavioral measures were mapped onto phylogenetic trees, independent contrasts showed no significant consistent directional changes at nodes below which there were evolutionary changes in scale. Further, contrasts were no greater at these nodes than at neutral nodes. This suggests that correlations with the scale can be attributed largely to species’ phylogenetic relationships. This could be due in turn to a structural linkage of social traits based on adaptation to similar ecological conditions in the distant past, or simply to unlinked phylogenetic closeness. Am. J. Primatol. 74:915‐925, 2012.

Hierarchical steepness, counter-aggression, and Macaque social style scale

Nonhuman primates show remarkable variation in several aspects of social structure. One way to characterize this variation in the genus Macaca is through the concept of social style, which is based on the observation that several social traits appear to covary with one another in a linear or at least continuous manner. In practice, macaques are more simply characterized as fitting a four‐grade scale in which species range from extremely despotic (grade 1) to extremely tolerant (grade 4). Here, we examine the fit of three core measures of social style—two measures of dominance gradients (hierarchical steepness) and another closely related measure (counter‐aggression)—to this scale, controlling for phylogenetic relationships. Although raw scores for both steepness and counter‐aggression correlated with social scale in predicted directions, the distributions appeared to vary by measure. Counter‐aggression appeared to vary dichotomously with scale, with grade 4 species being distinct from all other grades. Steepness measures appeared more continuous. Species in grades 1 and 4 were distinct from one another on all measures, but those in the intermediate grades varied inconsistently. This confirms previous indications that covariation is more readily observable when comparing species at the extreme ends of the scale than those in intermediate positions. When behavioral measures were mapped onto phylogenetic trees, independent contrasts showed no significant consistent directional changes at nodes below which there were evolutionary changes in scale. Further, contrasts were no greater at these nodes than at neutral nodes. This suggests that correlations with the scale can be attributed largely to species’ phylogenetic relationships. This could be due in turn to a structural linkage of social traits based on adaptation to similar ecological conditions in the distant past, or simply to unlinked phylogenetic closeness. Am. J. Primatol. 74:915‐925, 2012.

Kinship and Different Dominance Styles in Groups of Three Species of the Genus Macaca (M. arctoides, M. mulatta, M. fascicularis)

Single groups with small matrilines of 3 species of the genus Macaca (M. arctoides, M. mulatta, M. fascicularis) were investigated. The aim of the study was to find out how affiliative preferences towards close kin correlate with the distribution of aggression and support in agonistic encounters among individuals, and whether such tendencies differ between species with different dominance styles. It was found that aggression between kin was less frequent than between non-kin in all 3 groups. Kinship was not a decisive factor in the choice of partners for close spatial proximity in any of the 3 species. Animals preferred to groom relatives significantly more frequently only in the M. mulatta group. A kin effect was clearly expressed in the choice of objects of support in aggressive conflicts in M. mulatta and M. fascicularis, whereas in M. arctoides such an effect was absent. In the M. mulatta and M. arctoides groups, animals preferred to support victims, while in the M. fascicularis group aggressors were preferentially supported. Our data supported conclusions about differences in the number of social parameters in species with different dominance styles. In species with relaxed social hierarchies (M. arctoides), there is a strong tendency towards cohesive relations with all social categories, while in groups with rigid hierarchies (M. mulatta; M. fascicularis) cohesive tendencies are largely concentrated in the direction of related individuals.

Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation (SCBE-30) and Socialization Values (SVQ): Russian Children Ages 3 to 6 Years

The social competence and problem behaviors of 217 Russian preschoolers were evaluated by their teachers using the SCBE-30, and socialization values were rated by 26 teachers using a 25-item Socialization Values Q-Sort. It was demonstrated that the development of social competence and behavior problems in Russian preschoolers has many similarities with American, Canadian, French and Spanish samples (LaFreniere & Dumas, 1996; Dumas & Laughlin, 2000). Structural equivalence was demonstrated by finding the same three factors of anxiety-withdrawal, anger-aggression, and social competence as in other samples, and significant negative correlations were observed between social competence and anxiety-withdrawal, and social competence and anger-aggression. These similarities may reflect the universal nature of human social behavior and existence of panhuman characteristics that equip children for survival (Whiting & Edwards, 1988; Butovskaya et al., 2000). At the same time, social competence, angeraggression and anxious-withdrawn scales revealed a mix of universal and culturally specific patterns that may be connected with gender stereotypes that prevail in Russian culture (Butovskaya et al., 1998). Socialization values of the teachers were generally collectivistic, and we believe that this fact influences to some extent their ratings of children on SCBE scales.

Reconciliation, dominance and cortisol levels in children and adolescents (7–15-year-old boys)

The stress reduction hypothesis of reconciliation (Aureli, 1997; Aureli & Smucny, 2000) is tested on hormonal level. This study explores the potential relationships between post-conflict behaviour and cortisol level in boys between 7 and 15 years of age observed in summer camp during their free-time playing. Data on 56 boys are presented. Cortisol levels were measured in the morning (fixed time of the day), about 15 min after the end of conflict (PC) and next day without conflict as a match control (MC). Post-conflict of two types were analyzed: those followed with affiliation between former opponents and without affiliation. Age and dominance status of boys were taken in account in analyses of relationships between cortisol and post-conflict behaviour. The differences of cortisol level according to the occurrence of reconciliation were demonstrated. The stress reduction hypothesis of reconciliation was confirmed at the physiological level in children and adolescents.