Mario A. Anzano

Mice lacking Smad3 show accelerated wound healing and an impaired local inflammatory response.

The generation of animals lacking SMAD proteins, which transduce signals from transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), has made it possible to explore the contribution of the SMAD proteins to TGF-β activity in vivo. Here we report that, in contrast to predictions made on the basis of the ability of exogenous TGF-β to improve wound healing, Smad3-null (Smad3ex8/ex8) mice paradoxically show accelerated cutaneous wound healing compared with wild-type mice, characterized by an increased rate of re-epithelialization and significantly reduced local infiltration of monocytes. Smad3ex8/ex8 keratinocytes show altered patterns of growth and migration, and Smad3ex8/ex8 monocytes exhibit a selectively blunted chemotactic response to TGF-β. These data are, to our knowledge, the first to implicate Smad3 in specific pathways of tissue repair and in the modulation of keratinocyte and monocyte function in vivo.

Mice Lacking Smad3 Are Protected Against Cutaneous Injury Induced by Ionizing Radiation

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and fibrotic diseases, including radiation-induced fibrosis. We previously reported that mice null for Smad3, a key downstream mediator of TGF-beta, show accelerated healing of cutaneous incisional wounds with reduced inflammation and accumulation of matrix. To determine if loss of Smad3 decreases radiation-induced injury, skin of Smad3+/+ [wild-type (WT)] and -/- [knockout (KO)] mice was exposed to a single dose of 30 to 50 Gy of gamma-irradiation. Six weeks later, skin from KO mice showed significantly less epidermal acanthosis and dermal influx of mast cells, macrophages, and neutrophils than skin from WT littermates. Skin from irradiated KO mice exhibited less immunoreactive TGF-beta and fewer myofibroblasts, suggesting that these mice will have a significantly reduced fibrotic response. Although irradiation induced no change in the immunohistochemical expression of the TGF-beta type I receptor, the epidermal expression of the type II receptor was lost after irradiation whereas its dermal expression remained high. Primary keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts prepared from WT and KO mice showed similar survival when irradiated, as did mice exposed to whole-body irradiation. These results suggest that inhibition of Smad3 might decrease tissue damage and reduce fibrosis after exposure to ionizing irradiation.

Smad3 Signaling Is Required for Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition of Lens Epithelium after Injury

Lens epithelial cells undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) after injury as in cataract extraction, leading to fibrosis of the lens capsule. Fibrosis of the anterior capsule can be modeled in the mouse by capsular injury in the lens, which results in EMT of the lens epithelium and subsequent deposition of extracellular matrix without contamination of other cell types from outside the lens. We have previously shown that signaling via Smad3, a key signal-transducing element downstream of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and activin receptors, is activated in lens epithelial cells by 12 hours after injury and that this Smad3 activation is blocked by administration of a TGF-beta 2-neutralizing antibody in mice. We now show that EMT of primary lens epithelial cells in vitro depends on TGF-beta expression and that injury-induced EMT in vivo depends, more specifically, on signaling via Smad3. Loss of Smad3 in mice blocks both morphological changes of lens epithelium to a mesenchymal phenotype and expression of the EMT markers snail, alpha-smooth muscle actin, lumican, and type I collagen in response to injury in vivo or to exposure to exogenous TGF-beta in organ culture. The results suggest that blocking the Smad3 pathway might be beneficial in inhibiting capsular fibrosis after injury and/or surgery.

Interference with Transforming Growth Factor-β/ Smad3 Signaling Results in Accelerated Healing of Wounds in Previously Irradiated Skin

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta regulates many aspects of wound repair including inflammation, chemotaxis, and deposition of extracellular matrix. We previously showed that epithelialization of incisional wounds is accelerated in mice null for Smad3, a key cytoplasmic mediator of TGF-beta signaling. Here, we investigated the effects of loss of Smad3 on healing of wounds in skin previously exposed to ionizing radiation, in which scarring fibrosis complicates healing. Cutaneous wounds made in Smad3-null mice 6 weeks after irradiation showed decreased wound widths, enhanced epithelialization, and reduced numbers of neutrophils and myofibroblasts compared to wounds in irradiated wild-type littermates. Differences in breaking strength of wild-type and Smad3-null wounds were not significant. As shown previously for neutrophils, chemotaxis of primary dermal fibroblasts to TGF-beta required Smad3, but differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts by TGF-beta was independent of Smad3. Previous irradiation-enhanced induction of connective tissue growth factor mRNA in wild-type, but not Smad3-null fibroblasts, suggested that this may contribute to the heightened scarring in irradiated wild-type skin as demonstrated by Picrosirius red staining. Overall, the data suggest that attenuation of Smad3 signaling might improve the healing of wounds in previously irradiated skin commensurate with an inhibition of fibrosis.

Role of Smad3 in the hormonal modulation of in vivo wound healing responses

Smad3 is involved in mediating intracellular signaling by members of the transforming growth factor‐β superfamily and plays a critical role in the cellular proliferation, differentiation, migration, and elaboration of matrix pivotal to cutaneous wound healing. Cross‐talk between Smad3 and hormone signaling in vitro has been suggested as an important control mechanism regulating cell activities; however, its relevance in vivo is unknown. Here we report that Smad3 plays a role in androgen‐mediated inhibition of wound healing but not in the responses to estrogen modulation in vivo. Both wild‐type and Smad3 null female mice exhibited delayed healing following ovariectomy, which could be reversed by estrogen replacement. By contrast, castration accelerated healing in wild‐type male mice and was reversible by exogenous androgen treatment. Intriguingly, modulation of androgen levels resulted in no discernible perturbation in the healing response in the Smad3 null mice. Mutant monocytes could be lipopolysaccharide stimulated to produce specific pro‐inflammatory agents (macrophage monocyte inhibitory factor) in a fashion similar to wild‐type cells, but exhibited a muted response to androgen‐mediated stimulation while maintaining a normal response to estrogen‐induced macrophage inhibitory factor inhibition. These data suggest that Smad3 plays a role in mediating androgen signaling during the normal wound healing response and implicate Smad3 in the modulation of inflammatory cell activity by androgens. (WOUND REP REG 2003;11:468–473)

Purification by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography of an epidermal growth factor-dependent transforming growth factor

Abstract Transforming growth factors (TGF) are low molecular weight, acid-stable polypeptides that confer a malignant phenotype on nonneoplastic cells. TGF from murine sarcoma virus transformed 3T3 cells were isolated by acid/ethanol extraction, Bio-Gel P-30 chromatography, and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Using a μBondapak C 18 column with an acetonitrile gradient, TGF activity can be resolved into two peaks, one of which requires epidermal growth factor (EGF) to induce colony formation of indicator cells in soft agar. Subsequent rechromatography of the EGF-dependent TGF on a μBondapak CN column using an n-propanol gradient resulted in a 430-fold purification over the acid/ethanol extract and showed soft agar activity at a concentration of 4 ng/ml in the presence of 2 ng/ml EGF. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed one main band with an apparent molecular weight of 13,000.

Dietary 4-HPR suppresses the development of bone metastasis in vivo in a mouse model of prostate cancer progression.

The effects of the synthetic retinoid N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide (4-HPR) on prostate cancer metastasis in vivo were evaluated in the mouse prostate reconstitution (MPR) model. MPRs were produced by infection of either heterozygous (+/−) or nullizygous (−/−) p53-mutant fetal prostatic epithelial cells with the recombinant retrovirus Zipras/myc 9. Previous studies have documented that loss of p53 function potentiates metastasis in this model system. MPRs were grafted into homozygous (+/+) p53 male mice, fed a 4-HPR containing diet or a control diet and maintained until the status of tumor progression dictated sacrifice. Under these experimental conditions, treatment with 4-HPR did not have a significant effect on primary tumor wet weight for either p53 +/− or p53 −/− MPRs. For, p53 +/− MPRs the animals fed the 4-HPR diet had a slight improvement in survival and a significant reduction in the number of mesenteric metastases (P=0.0477, t-test). Notably, in p53 +/− MPRs the incidence of metastasis to lumbar spine and sternum was 92% in the control animals compared to 54% in the 4-HPR treated animals (P=0.035, χ2-test). In p53 −/− MPRs there was a trend toward a reduction in the number of soft tissue metastases to lung and liver in the 4-HPR group relative to the control diet group and a statistically significant reduction in the incidence of metastasis to bone was demonstrated in that 50% of control animals versus 30% of 4-HPR treated p53 −/− animals harbored bone metastases (P=0<0.05, χ2-test). Cell lines were established from portions of the primary tumor and from selected metastatic deposits in each experimental group. Clonal analysis, by retroviral integration pattern, indicated increased clonal diversity in both the primary tumors and metastasis-derived cell lines from 4-HPR treated animals relative to the control animals. In vitro treatment with 4-HPR did not reveal discriminating differences between cell lines derived from primary tumors and bone metastases or control and treatment groups in regard to growth arrest or apoptotic responses. Overall these studies indicate limited anti-tumor and anti-metastatic activity in this highly aggressive in vivo mouse model of prostate cancer, yet 4-HPR treatment significantly suppressed the development of bone metastases in p53 +/− and p53 −/− MPRs revealing a novel and potentially clinically useful activity of this retinoid.

Automation of data acquisition and processing in assays for anchorage-independent growth: Application to the purification of epithelial transforming growth factor

We have developed a method for automated data collection from anchorage-independent growth assays by direct interfacing of an Omnicon image analysis system with a VAX mainframe computer network. By use of this interface, data generated with the Omnicon can be acquired and manipulated by the VAX, providing several advantages including high throughput, elimination of operator error, flexibility and speed, and capacity of mainframe data processing. We have applied these techniques to aid in the purification of a novel growth factor for human epithelial cells. Both column elution profiles and dose-response data were processed to graphic formats, and ED50 values for the individual purification steps were obtained by Hill transformation of the dose-response curves. The assay for anchorage-independent growth is widely used for purification of growth factors and testing of chemotherapeutic agents against human tumor cells. The present technique should be useful in facilitating these labor-intensive studies.