Marit Lenman

Cloning and Functional Characterization of a Phospholipid:Diacylglycerol Acyltransferase from Arabidopsis

A new pathway for triacylglycerol biosynthesis involving a phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferase (PDAT) was recently described (Dahlqvist A, Stahl U, Lenman M, Banas A, Lee M, Sandager L, Ronne H, Stymne S, [2000] Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 6487–6492). The LRO1 gene that encodes the PDAT was identified in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and shown to have homology with animal lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase. A search of the Arabidopsis genome database identified the protein encoded by the At5g13640 gene as the closest homolog to the yeast PDAT (28% amino acid identity). The cDNA of At5g13640 (AtPDAT gene) was overexpressed in Arabidopsis behind the cauliflower mosaic virus promoter. Microsomal preparations of roots and leaves from overexpressers had PDAT activities that correlated with expression levels of the gene, thus demonstrating that this gene encoded PDAT (AtPDAT). The AtPDAT utilized different phospholipids as acyl donor and accepted acyl groups ranging from C10 to C22. The rate of activity was highly dependent on acyl composition with highest activities for acyl groups containing several double bonds, epoxy, or hydroxy groups. The enzyme utilized both sn-positions of phosphatidylcholine but had a 3-fold preference for the sn-2 position. The fatty acid and lipid composition as well as the amounts of lipids per fresh weight in Arabidopsis plants overexpressing AtPDAT were not significantly different from the wild type. Microsomal preparations of roots from a T-DNA insertion mutant in the AtPDAT gene had barely detectable capacity to transfer acyl groups from phospholipids to added diacylglycerols. However, these microsomes were still able to carry out triacylglycerol synthesis by a diacylglycerol:diacylglycerol acyltransferase reaction at the same rate as microsomal preparations from wild type.

Triacylglycerols are synthesised and utilized by transacylation reactions in microsomal preparations of developing safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius L.) seeds

Abstract. Microsomal membrane preparations from the immature cotyledons of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) catalysed the interconversion of the neutral lipids, mono-, di-, and triacylglycerol. Membranes were incubated with neutral lipid substrates, 14C-labelled either in the acyl or glycerol moiety, and the incorporation of radioactivity into other complex lipids determined. It was clear that diacylglycerol gave rise to triacylglycerol and monoacylglycerol as well as phosphatidylcholine. Radioactivity from added [14C] triacylglycerol was to a small extent transferred to diacylglycerol whereas added [14C] monoacylglycerol was rapidly converted to diacylglycerols and triacylglycerols. The formation of triacylglycerol from diacylglycerol occurred in the absence of acyl-CoA and hence did not involve diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DAGAT) activity. Monoacylglycerol was not esterified by direct acylation from acyl-CoA. We propose that these reactions were catalyzed by a diacylglycerol: diacylglycerol transacylase which yielded triacylglycerol and monoacylglycerol, the reaction being freely reversible. The specific activity of the transacylase was some 25% of the diacylglycerol acyltransferase activity and, hence, during the net accumulation of oil, substantial newly formed triacylglycerol equilibrated with the diacylglycerol pool. In its turn the diacylglycerol rapidly interconverted with phosphatidylcholine, the major complex lipid substrate for Δ12 desaturation. Hence, the oleate from triacylglycerols entering phosphatidylcholine via this route could be further desaturated to linoleate. A model is presented which reconciles these observations with our current understanding of fatty acid desaturation in phosphatidylcholine and oil assembly in oleaceous seeds.

The glucosinolate-degrading enzyme myrosinase in Brassicaceae is encoded by a gene family.

A full-length cDNA clone (MB3) and three partial clones (MA1, MB1 and MB2) which encode myrosinase (thioglucoside glucohydrolase, EC 3.2.3.1) were isolated from a Sinapis alba (white mustard) cDNA library. Nucleotide sequence analysis of these clones revealed that they are encoded by a gene family. Southern blot analysis with gene-specific probes showed that the gene family consists of a least two subfamilies (MA and MB) each with several members both in S. alba and in Brassica napus (oilseed rape). In Arabidopsis thaliana (wall cress) only three myrosinase genes seem to be present. Northern blot analysis indicated that all the myrosinase mRNA species have the same size, approximately 1.95 kb.

Differential expression of myrosinase gene families

In mature seeds of Brassica napus three major and three minor myrosinase isoenzymes were identified earlier. These myrosinases are known to be encoded by at least two different families of myrosinase genes, denoted MA and MB. In the work described in this paper the presence of different myrosinase isoenzymes in embryos, seedlings, and vegetative mature tissues of B. napus was studied and related to the expression of myrosinase MA and MB genes in the same tissues to facilitate future functional studies of these enzymes. In developing seeds, myrosinases of 75, 73, 70, 68, 66, and 65 kD were present. During seedling development there was a turnover of the myrosinase pool such that in 5-d-old seedlings the 75-, 70-, 66-, and 65-kD myrosinases were present, with the 70- and 75-kD myrosinases predominating. In 21-d-old seedlings the same myrosinases were present, but the 66- and 65-kD myrosinase species were most abundant. At flowering the mature organs of the plant contained only a 72-kD myrosinase. MA genes were expressed only in developing seeds, whereas MB genes were most highly expressed in seeds, seedling cotyledons, young leaves, and to a lesser extent other organs of the mature plant. During embryogenesis of B. napus, myrosinase MA and MB gene transcripts started to accumulate approximately 20 d after pollination and reached their highest level approximately 15 d later. MB transcripts accumulated to about 3 times the amount of MA transcripts. In situ hybridization analysis of B. napus embryos showed that MA transcripts were present predominantly in myrosin cells in the axis, whereas MB genes were expressed in myrosin cells of the entire embryo. The embryo axis contained 75-, 70-, and 65-kD myrosinases, whereas the cotyledons contained mainly 70- and 65-kD myrosinases. Amino acid sequencing revealed the 75-kD myrosinase to be encoded by the MA gene family. The high degree of cell and tissue specificity of the expression of myrosinase genes suggests that studies of their transcription should provide interesting information concerning a complex type of gene regulation.

Characterization of rapeseed myrosinase-binding protein.

Myrosinase-binding proteins (MBPs) were purified from seeds of Brassica napus L. (oilseed rape). The proteins were characterized with respect to amino-acid composition, peptide sequence and isoelectric points. Gel electrophoresis and Western blotting of protein extracts from mature seeds showed the existence of at least ten proteins reacting with a monoclonal anti-MBP antibody and ranging in molecular size from 110 to 30 kDa. Proteins other than MBP reacting with the anti-MBP antibody were assigned as myrosinase-binding protein-related proteins (MBPRPs). Two MBPRPs were purified by immunoaffinity chromatography and characterized with respect to partial amino-acid sequence. Sequence identities were found between MBP and MBPRP. Western blot analysis of protein extracts from different tissues of B. napus showed that MBPRP is present in the whole plant, whereas MBP mostly occurs in the mature seed. A double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to investigate the occurrence of MBP and MBPRP in developing seeds of some species in the Brassicaceae family.

Myrosinase is localized to the interior of myrosin grains and is not associated to the surrounding tonoplast membrane

Abstract The distribution of myrosinase was investigated in embryos of different age of Sinapis alba by immuno electron microscopy. Using a well characterized monoclonal antibody the myrosinase was found to be exclusively localized to the interior of the myrosin grains, a finding in contrast to earlier studies by light microscopy which indicated either a cytoplasmic distribution or an association to the tonoplast membrane surrounding the myrosin grains.

Sequence of a cDNA clone encoding the enzyme myrosinase and expression of myrosinase in different tissues of Brassica napus

We have isolated and sequenced a cDNA clone for the glucosinolate-degrading enzyme myrosinase from Brassica napus (oilseed rape). Using a probe derived from the cDNA clone we have studied the expression of myrosinase genes in different tissues of B. napus. The myrosinase genes are most highly expressed in the young leaves, the cotyledons and the developing seed. Other parts of the plant only show a relatively low expression of myrosinase. In the developing seed the expression of myrosinase is first detected at 15 days after pollination and at the highest levels around 30 days after pollination. The myrosinase genes are turned on earlier, but also silenced earlier than the genes for the storage protein cruciferin.

Characterization of a Brassica napus myrosinase pseudogene: myrosinases are members of the BGA family of beta-glycosidases

Myrosinase isoenzymes are known to be encoded by two different families of genes denoted MA and MB. Nucleotide sequence analysis of a Brassica napus genomic clone containing a gene for myrosinase revealed it to be a pseudogene of the MA family. The gene spans more than 5 kb and contains at least 12 exons. The exon sequence of the gene is highly similar to myrosinase cDNA sequences. However, the gene displays three potential or actual pseudogene characters. Southern blot analysis using probes from the 3′ portions of the genomic and B. napus MA and MB cDNA clones showed that MA type myrosinases are encoded by approximately 4 genes, while MB type myrosinases are encoded by more than 10 genes in B. napus. Northern blots with mRNA from seeds and young leaves probed with the MA-and MB-specific probes showed that the MA and MB myrosinase gene families are differentially expressed. Myrosinases are highly similar to proteins of a β-glycosidase enzyme family comprising both β-glycosidases and phospho-β-glycosidases of as diverged species as archaebacteria, bacteria, mammals and plants. By homology to these β-glycosidases, putative active site residues in myrosinase are discussed on the basis of the similarity between β-glycosidases and cellulases.

Enrichment of Phosphoproteins and Phosphopeptide Derivatization Identify Universal Stress Proteins in Elicitor-Treated Arabidopsis

Protein phosphorylation is a key biological process that regulates reactions involved in plant-microbe interactions. The phosphorylated form of a protein often represents only a small fraction of the total population and can be problematic to analyze in a mass spectrometer. We demonstrate how a titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) resin can be employed for the enrichment of phosphoproteins, as well as a method to derivatize TiO(2)-purified phosphopeptides to facilitate determination of the exact site of phosphorylation. The use of these methods was exemplified by the identification of two plant proteins that were shown to be phosphorylated after the elicitation of Arabidopsis cells with Phytophthora infestans zoospores and xylanase. Both of the proteins that were identified, At5g54430.1 and At4g27320.1, were found to contain a universal stress protein domain with conserved residues for ATP binding.

Paranoid potato: phytophthora-resistant genotype shows constitutively activated defense.

Phytophthora is the most devastating pathogen of dicot plants. There is a need for resistance sources with different modes of action to counteract the fast evolution of this pathogen. In order to better understand mechanisms of defense against P. infestans, we analyzed several clones of potato. Two of the genotypes tested, Sarpo Mira and SW93-1015, exhibited strong resistance against P. infestans in field trials, whole plant assays and detached leaf assays. The resistant genotypes developed different sizes of hypersensitive response (HR)-related lesions. HR lesions in SW93-1015 were restricted to very small areas, whereas those in Sarpo Mira were similar to those in Solanum demissum, the main source of classical resistance genes. SW93-1015 can be characterized as a cpr (constitutive expressor of PR genes) genotype without spontaneous microscopic or macroscopic HR lesions. This is indicated by constitutive hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production and PR1 (pathogenesis-related protein 1) secretion. SW93-1015 is one of the first plants identified as having classical protein-based induced defense expressed constitutively without any obvious metabolic costs or spontaneous cell death lesions.