Mark A. Olson

Acid−Base Actuation of [c2]Daisy Chains

A versatile synthetic strategy, which was conceived and employed to prepare doubly threaded, bistable [c2]daisy chain compounds, is described. Propargyl and 1-pentenyl groups have been grafted onto the stoppers of [c2]daisy chain molecules obtained using a template-directed synthetic protocol. Such [c2]daisy chain molecules undergo reversible extension and contraction upon treatment with acid and base, respectively. The dialkyne-functionalized [c2]daisy chain (AA) was subjected to an [AA+BB] type polymerization with an appropriate diazide (BB) to afford a linear, mechanically interlocked, main-chain polymer. The macromolecular properties of this polymer were characterized by chronocoulometry, size exclusion chromatography, and static light-scattering analysis. The acid-base switching properties of both the monomers and the polymer have been studied in solution, using (1)H NMR spectroscopy, UV/vis absorption spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. The experimental results demonstrate that the functionalized [c2]daisy chains, along with their polymeric derivatives, undergo quantitative, efficient, and fully reversible switching processes in solution. Kinetics measurements demonstrate that the acid/base-promoted extension/contraction movements of the polymeric [c2]daisy chain are actually faster than those of its monomeric counterpart. These observations open the door to correlated molecular motions and to changes in material properties.

Metal Nanoparticles Functionalized with Molecular and Supramolecular Switches

Weakly protected metal nanoparticles (MNPs) are used as precursors for the preparation of catenane- and pseudorotaxane-decorated NPs of various compositions (gold, palladium, platinum). When attached to the surface of MNPs, the molecular switches retain their switching abilities. The redox potentials of these switches depend on and can be regulated by the composition of the mixed self-assembled monolayers covering the MNPs.

Assembly of polygonal nanoparticle clusters directed by reversible noncovalent bonding interactions.

The reversible molecular template-directed self-assembly of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), a process which relies solely on noncovalent bonding interactions, has been demonstrated by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). By employing a well-known host-guest binding motif, the AuNPs have been systemized into discrete dimers, trimers, and tetramers. These nanoparticulate twins, triplets, and quadruplets, which can be disassembled and reassembled either chemically or electrochemically, can be coalesced into larger, permanent polygonal structures by thermal treatment using a focused HR-TEM electron beam.

A Multistate Switchable [3]Rotacatenane

Rotacatenanes are exotic molecular compounds that can be visualized as a unique combination of a [2]catenane and a [2]rotaxane, thereby combining both the circumrotation of the ring component (rotary motion) and the shuttling of the dumbbell component (translational motion) in one structure. Herein, we describe a strategy for the synthesis of a new switchable [3]rotacatenane and the investigation of its switching properties, which rely on the formation of tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) radical π-dimer interactions-namely, the mixed-valence state (TTF(2) )(+.) and the radical-cation dimer state (TTF(+.) )(2) -under ambient conditions. A template-directed approach, based on donor-acceptor interactions, has been developed, resulting in an improved yield of the key precursor [2]catenane, prior to rotacatenation. The nature of the binding between the [2]catenane and selected π-electron-rich templates has been elucidated by using X-ray crystallography and UV/Vis spectroscopy as well as isothermal titration microcalorimetry. The multistate switching mechanism of the [3]rotacatenane has been demonstrated by cyclic voltammetry and EPR spectroscopy. Most notably, the radical-cation dimer state (TTF(+.) )(2) has been shown to enter into an equilibrium by forming the co-conformation in which the two 1,5-dioxynaphthalene (DNP) units co-occupy the cavity of tetracationic cyclophane, thus enforcing the separation of TTF radical-cation dimer (TTF(+.) )(2) . The population ratio of this equilibrium state was found to be 1:1. We believe that this research demonstrates the power of constructing complex molecular machines using template-directed protocols, enabling us to make the transition from simple molecular switches to their multistate variants for enhancing information storage in molecular electronic devices.

A bistable poly[2]catenane forms nanosuperstructures

Side-chain poly[2]catenanes at the click of a switch! A bistable side-chain poly[2]catenane has been synthesized and found to form hierarchical self-assembled hollow superstructures of nanoscale dimensions in solution. Molecular electromechanical switching (see picture) of the material is demonstrated, and the ground-state equilibrium thermodynamics and switching kinetics are examined as the initial steps towards processible molecular-based electronic devices and nanoelectromechanical systems.

Molecular-Mechanical Switching at the Nanoparticle-Solvent Interface: Practice and Theory

A range (Au, Pt, Pd) of metal nanoparticles (MNPs) has been prepared and functionalized with (a) redox-active stalks containing tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) units, (b) [2]pseudorotaxanes formed between these stalks and cyclobis(paraquat-p-phenylene) (CBPQT(4+)) rings, and (c) bistable [2]rotaxane molecules where the dumbbell component contains a 1,5-dioxynaphthalene (DNP) unit, as well as a TTF unit, encircled by a CBPQT(4+) ring. It transpires that the molecules present in (a) and (c) and the supermolecules described in (b) retain their switching characteristics, previously observed in solution, when they are immobilized onto MNPs. Moreover, their oxidation potentials depend on the fraction, chi, of the molecules or supermolecules on the surface of the nanoparticles. A variation in chi affects the oxidation potentials of the TTF units to the extent that switching can be subjected to fine tuning as a result. Specifically, increasing chi results in positive shifts (i) in the oxidation potentials of the TTF unit in (a)-(c) and (ii) the reduction potentials of the CBPQT(4+) rings in (c). These shifts can be attributed to an increase in the electrostatic potential surrounding the MNPs. Both the magnitude and the direction of these shifts are reproduced by a model, based on the Poisson-Boltzmann equation coupled with charge-regulating boundary conditions. Furthermore, the kinetics of relaxation from the metastable state coconformation (MSCC) to the ground-state coconformation (GSCC) of the bistable [2]rotaxane molecules also depends on chi, as well as on the nanoparticle diameter. Increasing either of these parameters accelerates the rate of relaxation from the MSCC to the GSCC. This rate is a function of (i) the activation energy for the relaxation process associated with the bistable [2]rotaxane molecules in solution and (ii) the electrostatic potential surrounding the MNPs. The electrostatic potential depends on (i) the diameter of the MNPs, (ii) the amount of the bistable [2]rotaxane molecules on the surface of the MNPs, and (iii) the equilibrium distribution of the CBPQT(4+) rings between the DNP and TTF recognition sites in the GSCC. This electrostatic potential has also been quantified using the Poisson-Boltzmann equation, leading to faithful estimates of the rate constants.

Donor–Acceptor Oligorotaxanes Made to Order

Five donor-acceptor oligorotaxanes made up of dumbbells composed of tetraethylene glycol chains, interspersed with three and five 1,5-dioxynaphthalene units, and terminated by 2,6-diisopropylphenoxy stoppers, have been prepared by the threading of discrete numbers of cyclobis(paraquat-p-phenylene) rings, followed by a kinetically controlled stoppering protocol that relies on click chemistry. The well-known copper(I)-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition between azide functions placed at the ends of the polyether chains and alkyne-bearing stopper precursors was employed during the final kinetically controlled template-directed synthesis of the five oligorotaxanes, which were characterized subsequently by (1)H NMR spectroscopy at low temperature (233 K) in deuterated acetonitrile. The secondary structures, as well as the conformations, of the five oligorotaxanes were unraveled by spectroscopic comparison with the dumbbell and ring components. By focusing attention on the changes in chemical shifts of some key probe protons, obtained from a wide range of low-temperature spectra, a picture emerges of a high degree of folding within the thread protons of the dumbbells of four of the five oligorotaxanes-the fifth oligorotaxane represents a control compound in effect-brought about by a combination of C-H···O and π-π stacking interactions between the π-electron-deficient bipyridinium units in the rings and the π-electron-rich 1,5-dioxynaphthalene units and polyether chains in the dumbbells. The secondary structures of a foldamer-like nature have received further support from a solid-state superstructure of a related [3]pseudorotaxane and density functional calculations performed thereon.

Isolation by crystallization of translational isomers of a bistable donor-acceptor [2]catenane

The template-directed synthesis of a bistable donor-acceptor [2]catenane wherein both translational isomers—one in which a tetrathiafulvalene unit in a mechanically interlocked crown ether occupies the cavity of a cyclobis(paraquat-p-phenylene) ring and the other in which a 1,5-dioxynaphthalene unit in the crown ether resides inside the cavity of the tetracationic cyclophane—exist in equilibrium in solution, has led to the isolation and separation by hand picking of single crystals colored red and green, respectively. These two crystalline co-conformations have been characterized separately at both the molecular and supramolecular levels, and also by dynamic NMR spectroscopy in solution where there is compelling evidence that the mechanically interlocked molecules are present as a complex mixture of translational, configurational, and conformational isomers wherein the isomerization is best described as being a highly dynamic and adaptable phenomenon.

Polycatenation under Thermodynamic Control

Iodide-catalyzed reversible nucleophilic attacks have been exploited to access side-chain polycatenanes under thermodynamic control. Multiple catenations occurring all along the polymer chain are entirely driven to completion by the intra- and intermolecular side-chain π···π stacking interactions of contiguous catenanes.

A neutral redox-switchable [2]rotaxane

A limited range of redox-active, rotaxane-based, molecular switches exist, despite numerous potential applications for them as components of nanoscale devices. We have designed and synthesised a neutral, redox-active [2]rotaxane, which incorporates an electron-deficient pyromellitic diimide (PmI)-containing ring encircling two electron-rich recognition sites in the form of dioxynaphthalene (DNP) and tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) units positioned along the rod section of its dumbbell component. Molecular modeling using MacroModel guided the design of the mechanically interlocked molecular switch. The binding affinities in CH(2)Cl(2) at 298 K between the free ring and two electron-rich guests--one (K(a) = 5.8 × 10(2) M(-1)) containing a DNP unit and the other (K(a) = 6.3 × 10(3) M(-1)) containing a TTF unit--are strong: the one order of magnitude difference in their affinities favouring the TTF unit suggested to us the feasibility of integrating these three building blocks into a bistable [2]rotaxane switch. The [2]rotaxane was obtained in 34% yield by relying on neutral donor-acceptor templation and a double copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and spectroelectrochemistry (SEC) were employed to stimulate and observe switching by this neutral bistable rotaxane in solution at 298 K, while (1)H NMR spectroscopy was enlisted to investigate switching upon chemical oxidation. The neutral [2]rotaxane is a chemically robust and functional switch with potential for applications in device settings.