Mark Bray

Demand for private supplementary tutoring: conceptual considerations, and socio-economic patterns in Hong Kong

Abstract Despite the fact that in some parts of the world private supplementary tutoring is a huge industry with far-reaching economic, social and educational implications, the topic has been neglected by educational researchers. This paper focuses on the nature and determinants of demand for private supplementary tutoring. It first draws on literature from a wide range of countries to identify some conceptual considerations, and then presents data on socio-economic patterns of demand for tutoring in Hong Kong. It highlights the complexity of the topic, and calls for further detailed research in multiple settings.

Private Supplementary Tutoring: Comparative Perspectives on Patterns and Implications

Private supplementary tutoring has long been a major phenomenon in parts of East Asia, including Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan. In recent times it has grown dramatically in other parts of Asia and in Africa, Europe and North America. The factors underlying the growth of private tutoring vary, but in all settings it has major implications for learning and livelihood. Families with the necessary resources are able to secure not only greater quantities but also better qualities of private tutoring. Children receiving such tutoring are then able to perform better in school, and in the long run to improve their lifetime earnings. By contrast, children of low‐income families who do not receive such benefits may not be able to keep up with their peers and may drop out of school at an earlier age. Tutoring also of course has a direct impact on the livelihoods of the tutors, providing employment and incomes for a range of professionals and amateurs of different age groups. The dynamics of inter‐relationships are complex, and vary from one setting to another. This paper argues that private supplementary tutoring deserves much more attention from policy makers and researchers.

Comparative education research: approaches and methods

Approaches and methods in comparative education research are of obvious importance, but do not always receive adequate attention. This book contributes new insights within the longstanding traditions of the field. A particular feature is the focus on different units of analysis. Individual chapters compare places, systems, times, cultures, values, policies, curricula and other units. These chapters are contextualised within broader analytical frameworks which identify the purposes and strengths of the field. The book includes focus on intra-national as well as cross-national comparisons, and highlights the value of approaching themes from different angles. The book will be of great value not only to producers of comparative education research but also to consumers who wish to understand more thoroughly the parameters and value of the field. This book should emerge as the fields leading volume in comparative education research methodology.

Decentralization of education : community financing

This book focuses on the impact of community financing in formal primary and secondary education, although it is concerned with community and government contributions of material, labor, expertise, and land, as well as with monetary inputs. This study begins by examining the volume, nature, and mechanics of community financing in a range of settings. Discussion then turns to policy issues facing governments and those who work with them. This leads to consideration of instruments for incentives, guidance, and control of community activities. Specific strategies from different countries are presented and evaluated. The next-to-last chapter underlines the importance of monitoring and evaluation. The paper concludes by summarizing the lessons in the context of the debate about centralization and decentralization.

Financing Education in Transitional Societies: Lessons from Russia and China

Recent years have brought emerging theoretical propositions about the nature of educational change in societies undergoing transition from socialism to market economies. Focusing particularly on the financing of education, this article examines patterns in Russia and China in the light of this literature. It shows that although transitions in the two countries have displayed major differences, they have also displayed significant similarities. These similarities have been evident despite the fact that changes in Russia and China have been made independently of each other. This has largely been because of the impact of market forces, though it has also reflected broader forces of globalisation.

Postcolonial patterns and paradoxes: language and education in Hong Kong and Macao

The literature on postcolonialism covers a diverse set of geographic areas, cultures, timeframes, and economic and political circumstances. Within the context of this literature, this article focuses on two territories which underwent colonial transition right at the end of the twentieth century, and moved not to sovereignty but to reintegration with their motherland. Language in education systems has long been recognized not only as a very significant indicator of power relations in societies but also as a very important instrument for continuity and/or change. Hong Kongs education sector is a complex arena for language, in which English, Cantonese and Putonghua each play different and changing roles. Macaos education sector has all of these factors plus additional complexities arising from the place of Portuguese. The article notes various paradoxes in the ways that patterns developed in Hong Kong and Macao in the initial postcolonial period. It identifies lessons not only from comparison between Hong Kong and Macao, but also from comparison of experiences in the territories as a pair with experiences in other parts of the world.

Education and Colonial Transition: The Hong Kong Experience in Comparative Perspective.

ABSTRACT While in some respects the nature of Hong Kongs colonial transition seems unique, several parallels exist with transitions elsewhere. This paper begins by identifying major differences and similarities in the macro-framework. It then turns specifically to the education sector, noting that the parallel operation of multiple education systems within the boundaries of a single country is quite common and, therefore, that models already exist for continued plurality of the type that might be envisaged for Hong Kong and the rest of China. Examining changes at various points in time, the paper observes that some reforms were made in Hong Kongs educational provision well ahead of the commencement of colonial transition and far in advance of parallel points in the history in other colonies. The paper then turns to specific changes which occurred during the period 1984-1997 and to commentary on the further changes that may be expected in the continuing period of transition that commenced in 1997. Analys...

Comparative Education in Greater China: Contexts, Characteristics, Contrasts and Contributions.

Greater China is an umbrella term used to cover Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. This article reviews the evolution of comparative education in these four societies, noting major forces which have shaped the field. The article observes and comments on similarities and differences within the four societies. It has been prepared as a response to the millennial special issue of the journal, and notes some lessons and contributions from the field in Greater China to the global field of comparative education.

Benefits and Tensions of Shadow Education: Comparative Perspectives on the Roles and Impact of Private Supplementary Tutoring in the Lives of Hong Kong Students

Over half of Hong Kongs secondary students receive private supplementary tutoring, and in the last grade of secondary schooling the proportion exceeds 70%. Such tutoring is widely called shadow education because it mimics the regular system − as the curriculum in the schools changes, so it changes in the shadow; and as the regular school system expands, so does the shadow. The scale of private tutoring has grown significantly in the last two decades, and has become a standard feature of the lives of many families. Some tutoring is provided one-to-one by professionals, semi-professionals or amateurs; other tutoring is provided in small groups; and yet other tutoring is provided in lecture formats. Such tutoring demands significant financial investment by households, and also consumes substantial amounts of students time. Some tutoring has benefits in helping slow learners to keep up with their peers and in stretching further the learning of high achievers. Parents may also prefer to pay other people to manage homework and related stresses. However, tutoring can also increase pressures on young people, and is not always effective. This paper presents Hong Kong data within a framework that compares local patterns with those in other parts of the world. It raises questions about the implications of patterns and about appropriate responses for families, educators and policy makers.

Actors and Purposes in Comparative Education

The nature of any particular comparative study of education depends on the purposes for which it was undertaken and on the identity of the person(s) conducting the enquiry. This first chapter begins by noting different categories of people who undertake comparative studies of education. It then focuses on three of these groups: policy makers, international agencies, and academics. Although this book is chiefly concerned with the last of these groups, it is instructive to note similarities and differences between the purposes and approaches of academics and other groups.