Mark F. Peterson

Cultural Values, Sources of Guidance, and their Relevance to Managerial Behavior A 47-Nation Study

Data are presented showing how middle managers in 47 countries report handling eight specific work events. The data are used to test the ability of cultural value dimensions derived from the work of Hofstede, Trompenaars, and Schwartz to predict the specific sources of guidance on which managers rely. Focusing on sources of guidance is expected to provide a more precise basis than do generalized measures of values for understanding the behaviors that prevail within different cultures. Values are strongly predictive of reliance on those sources of guidance that are relevant to vertical relationships within organizations. However, values are less successful in predicting reliance on peers and on more tacit sources of guidance. Explaining national differences in these neglected aspects of organizational processes will require greater sensitivity to the culture-specific contexts within which they occur.

Handbook of Cross Cultural Management Research

Chapter 1: Introduction - Mark F. Peterson, Peter B. Smith, and David C. Thomas The Essence of Culture: Systems of Values, Beliefs and Meanings Links between People and Organizations Organizational Structures and Processes Managing a Multiple Nation Workforce Chapter 2: Cognitive Structures and Processes in Cross-Cultural Management - Mark F. Peterson and Robert E. Wood Motives and Motivation Processes Personality Constructs Cognitive Perspectives for Cross-Cultural Management Research Conclusions From Cognitive Theory Research Agenda Chapter 3: Social Structures and Processes in Cross-Cultural Management - Mark F. Peterson and Peter B. Smith Nations as Cultures How is Culture Created, Maintained, and Disseminated? Where Should Cultural Boundaries Be Drawn? Individuals Within Social Structures: Roles, Rules, and Norms Chapter 4: Methods and Measurements in Cross-Cultural Management - Kwok Leung Methodological Challenges in Cross-Cultural Management Research Cross-Cultural Equivalence Design of Cross-Cultural Studies Establishing Causality in Cross-Cultural Management Research Methodological Issues in International Management Research Emerging Methodological Issues in Cross-Cultural Management Research Chapter 5. Motivation and Job Satisfaction across Nations: How Much Do We Really Know? - Xu Huang The Theoretical Challenge to Universal Motivation Theories Empirical Evidence of Cross-National Variability In Defense of Universalist Motivation Theories How Much Do We Really Know? Chapter 6: Organizational Commitment: Complication or Clarification - S. Arzu Wasti Dimensions of Organizational Commitment Antecedents of Organizational Commitment Outcomes of Organizational Commitment Chapter 7. Psychological Contracts around the Globe: Cultural Agreements and Disagreements - Rene Schalk and Joseph Soeters Introduction Characteristics of Psychological Contracts The World as One Culture and as Many Aspects of Cross-Cultural Differences in Psychological Contracts Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research Chapter 8. Organizational Justice and Reward Allocation - Ronald Fischer Dimensions of Justice Distributive Justice Interpersonal Justice Justice Perceptions Areas for Future Development Chapter 9. International Careers - Kerr Inkson and Svetlana Khapova Introduction The Special Nature of Careers in International Contexts Contextual Influences on International Careers Migration and International Careers Two Types of International Career Current Issues in International Careers Chapter 10. Organizational Citizenship in the Global Context - Larry Jiing-Lih Farh, Rick Hackett, and Zhi-Jun Chen National Culture Criteria for Selecting Studies for Review Review of the Literature The Influence of National Culture on the Construct Domain of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour The Influence of National Culture on Differences in Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Moderating Effects of National Culture on Predictor- Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Relationships Moderating Effects of National Culture on Organizational Citizenship Behaviour -Outcome Relationships Future Research Direction Chapter 11. Work and Family: Research in Cross-National and International Contexts - Mila Lazarova and Michelle Lowe Expatriate Work/Family Research Research across Different National Contexts Comparative Work/Family Research Conclusions and Directions for Future Research Chapter 12. Cross Cultural Skills and Abilities: From Communication Competence to Cultural Intelligence - David C. Thomas and Stacey R. Fitzsimmons Effective Intercultural Interactions The Historical Basis for Studying Cross-Cultural Skills and Abilities Models of Intercultural Effectiveness A Typology of Cross-Cultural Skills and Abilities Conclusion Chapter 13. Cross-Cultural Approaches to Leadership - Zeynep Aycan Theoretical Approaches to Leadership in Cultural Context A Critical Review of Cross-Cultural Leadership Research Culture as a Main Effect Influencing Leadership Culture as a Moderator of the Relationship between Leadership and Outcomes Culture as a Source of Meaning: The Case of Paternalistic Leadership Chapter 14. Cross-Cultural Influence Strategies and Power Sources - Ping Fing Fu and Jun Liu Introduction The Existing Literature: A General Review A New Approach Conclusion Chapter 15. Teams Within and Across Cultures - Nir Halevy and Lilach Sagiv Multicultural Teams The Cultural Group Approach The Dynamic Constructivist Approach Unresolved Issues and Opportunities for Research Chapter 16. Culture and Negotiation - Jeanne Brett adn Susan Crotty The Dimensional Approach to Studying Cultural Effects on Negotiations The Cultural Group Approach The Dynamic Constructivist Approach Unresolved Issues and Opportunities for Research Chapter 17. The Culture of Global Organizations - Miriam Erez and Efrat Shokef The Nature of Multinational Enterprises Culture as a Multi-Level Dynamic Construct A Global Work Culture An Empirical Examination of the Global Work Culture Value Typology Summary and Discussion Chapter 18. Knowledge Management and Knowledge Transfer in Multinational Enterprises: Cultural and Institutional Perspectives - Jon Lervik Introduction Cross-Cultural Perspectives Neo-Institutionalism Discussion and Conclusion Chapter 19. Indigenous Aspects of Management - Peter B. Smith Societal Systems of Capitalism More Specific System Elements Emic Approaches Strengthening the Contribution from Indigenous Studies Chapter 20. Climate, Wealth, and Organization - Evert van de Vliert Climate and National Culture in Organizations Climate-Wealth Foundation of Organization Construction Climato-Economic Niches of Organizational Structures Climato-Economic Niches of Organizational Strategies Three Tentative Conclusions Three Remaining Puzzles Chapter 21. Comparative Human Resource Management Policies and Practices - Chris Brewster and Wolfgang Mayrhofer Comparing HRM around the Globe Explaining the Differences in Comparative HRM: Culture and Institutions Evidence of Convergence? Conclusions Chapter 22. Expatriate Selection and Evaluation - Rosalie Tung and Arup Varma Introduction Expatriate Selection Expatriate Evaluation Discussion Chapter 23. Global Diversity Management - Mustafa Ozbilgin Introduction Historical Development of the Diversity Management Concept Single-Nation Diversity Management Research Global Diversity Management: From Practice to Theory Discussion Chapter 24. Cross-Cultural Training: Applications and Research - Richard Brislin, Brent Macnab, and Farzana Nayani Goals of Cross-Cultural Training The Need for Cross-Cultural Training Historical Development of Cross-Cultural Training Development of Cross-Cultural Training Methods Types of CCT Programs CCT Effectiveness Recommendations for Future CCT Research Final Thoughts, Practical Recommendations and Future Considerations Chapter 25. Managerial Roles in the International Context - Davina Vora Typologies of Managerial Roles Role Theory and Boundary Spanning Theory A Contingency Approach Areas for Future Research Chapter 26. Cultural Dynamics and Impact of Cultural Distance within Mergers and Acquisitions - Gunter K. Stahl Cultural Variations in Mergers and Acquisitions Beyond the Cultural Distance Paradigm: Research into the Performance Effects of Cultural Differences in Mergers and Acquisitions Linking Cultural Differences to Integration Outcomes: Theoretical Perspectives on the Role of Culture in Mergers and Acquisitions The Impact of Cultural Differences on Post-Merger Performance: An Integrative Model Open Questions and Future Research Directions

National Culture and Information Technology Product Adoption

Abstract National culture is likely to play a role in Information Technology (IT) adoption. Data from a large scale study of national culture are used to predict the adoption of six information technologies -- PC, Telephone, Cell Phone, Fax, the Internet, and Pager — over a ten year period in thirty one nations. The results show that even after controlling for national economic and social differences, national cultural dimensions significantly predict most IT product adoptions.

International perspectives on international leadership

Abstract The ever-increasing awareness by businesses in every part of the world that distant organizations and distant events affect their own activities is driving new thinking about leadership just as it has affected all areas of business. Corporate-level leaders—chief executives and top-level management teams—find themselves challenged by a broad array of strategic alternatives for engaging in global competition. Leaders at all organization levels find themselves concerned with matters of multicultural relations and whether, what, and how cross-border learnings may be possible. Scholars working with international leadership find motivation for their research in these pressing problems. They grapple with questions of how far scientific social research can take us, and how the organization science ideas and methods developed in the United States and other technologically-advanced societies can be used elsewhere in the world. In this article, we deal with the kinds of efforts underway to deal with tensions between global consistency and local uniqueness in the nature and exercise of phenomena related to what social scientists have come to analyze under the label “leadership.” These tensions affect scholarly exchange no less than they affect multinational management. This article offers a context for this focus for both international leadership research, in general, and the work in this special issue, in particular.

Cuban-American Entrepreneurs: Chance, Complexity and Chaos

Bouchikhi (1993) introduces themes from chaos and complexity theory to gain an understanding about chance in entrepreneurship. We expand on these themes using an example from the Cuban immigrants to South Florida to increase the dynamism of Waldinger et al.s (1990) model of immigrant entrepreneurship. These complexity and chaos themes are: (1) large differences in outcomes can come from small differences in initial conditions; (2) largely unpredictable, radical changes can be intermixed with and become directly dependent on incremental, predictable changes; (3) short-term predictability can accompany long-term nonpredictability; (4) seemingly random patterns can show an apparent attraction to specific configurations; and (5), mutual influence among a small number of predictors can appear to be random. An example from among the leading Cuban-born entrepreneurs illustrates three levels of generality in entrepreneurship theory. Most generally, this persons career reflects abstract conclusions about entrepreneurship in the larger community. At a second level, it illustrates the uniqueness in the pattern of entrepreneurship for one sub-group, a specific age cadre. At a third level, it illustrates the uniquenesses of an individuals personal history. Insights at these three levels of generality appear as we follow a systematic, theory-based, case-study method.

Cultural Socialization as a Source of Intrinsic Work Motivation

Intrinsic motivation depends not only on innate qualities common to all people, but also on socialization into aspects of national culture that support proactive work behavior. Constructs from comparative research from the Meaning of Working project—work centrality, work goals, and societal norms—predict attitudes and aspects of performance that reflect intrinsic motivation beyond what is predicted by constructs based on traditional cognitive evaluation and job characteristics approaches to intrinsic motivation. Results predicting attitude criteria are quite similar for supervisor-level employees of local governments in the United States, Japan, and Hungary. Results predicting evaluated performance are stronger in the first two countries.

Emics and Etics for Organizational Studies A Lesson in Contrast from Linguistics

Pike spent his career addressing a practical problem in linguistics, one that has a close analogy in international organizational studies. It is the problem of how someone can enter an unfamiliar culture and learn to communicate and live there. The optimal tools to carry along to an unfamiliar locale would be an explicit theory developed specifically for that locale fleshed out with locally relevant tacit experience. However, unless the local people include organizational scholars, the most that one can realistically bring to a substantively new situation is explicit theory and content developed elsewhere that includes methods for induction that can be applied when interacting with local people who intuitively understand their own culture. Pikes research and experience, particularly the theme of contrast, has implications for many of the most basic methodological and philosophy of science issues facing organizational studies.

Cultural Influences in Negotiations : A Four Country Comparative Analysis

Empirical work systematically comparing variations across a range of countries is scarce. A comprehensive framework having the potential to yield comparable information across countries on 12 negotiating tendencies was proposed more than 20 years ago by Weiss and Stripp; however, the framework was never operationalized or empirically tested. A review of the negotiation and cross cultural research that have accumulated over the last two decades led to refinements in the definition of the dimensions in the framework. We operationalized four dimensions in the Negotiation Orientations Framework and developed the Negotiation Orientations Inventory (NOI) to assess individual orientations on those four dimensions. Data were collected from a sample of 1000 business people and university students with business experience from Finland, Mexico, Turkey, and the United States. Results are presented and further scale development is discussed. Findings establish the utility of the dimensions in the framework in making comparisons between the four countries.

The Heritage of Cross Cultural Management Research Implications for the Hofstede Chair in Cultural Diversity

Cross cultural research has made a number of contributions to social thought and has a number of limitations that suggest directions for future work. Understanding the current state and potential future of the field requires understanding how the history of culture analysis has shaped what we as scholars do and what our audience hears. That sort of understanding influences the significance of establishing a Hofstede Chair in Cultural Diversity at Maastricht University as well as influencing the purposes for which the chair should be used.

Demographic Effects on the Use of Vertical Sources of Guidance by Managers in Widely Differing Cultural Contexts

Data provided by 7380 middle managers from 60 nations are used to determine whether demographic variables are correlated with managers’ reliance on vertical sources of guidance in different nations and whether these correlations differ depending on national culture characteristics. Significant effects of Hofstede’s national culture scores, age, gender, organization ownership and department function are found. After these main effects have been discounted, significant although weak interactions are found, indicating that demographic effects are stronger in individualist, low power distance nations than elsewhere. Significant non-predicted interaction effects of uncertainty avoidance and masculinity-femininity are also obtained. The implications for theory and practice of the use of demographic attributes in understanding effective management procedures in various parts of the world are discussed.