Mark L. Davison

On a Metric, Unidimensional Unfolding Model for Attitudinal and Developmental Data.

If stimulus responses are linearly related to squared distances between stimulus scale values and person scores along a latent continuum, (a) the stimulus × stimulus correlation matrix will display a simplex-like pattern, (b) the signs of first-order partial correlations can be specified in an empirically testable manner, and (c) the variables will have a semicircular, two-factor structure. Along the semicircle, variables will be ordered by their positions on the latent dimension. The above results suggest procedures for examining the appropriateness of the model and procedures for ordering the stimuli. Applications to developmental and attitudinal data are discussed.

The reliability and validity of objective indices of moral development

The present paper addresses three issues sur rounding Rests Defining Issues Test, an objective test of moral development based on Kohlbergs six- stage theory of moral development. Those issues are (1) the stability of test scores over time; (2) correla tion of scores with Kohlbergs interview measure of moral development; and (3) the insensitivity of its scoring procedure, which ignores responses to all items keyed to lower stages. In two age heterogene ous samples, total score test-retest reliabilities were generally in the high .70s or low .80s, regardless of which of several scoring schemes was used. In another age heterogeneous sample, the correlation with scores on Kohlbergs test was .70; but in two age homogeneous samples, the correlations were about .35 and .20. These validity coefficients sug gest that (1) the common variance shared by Rests and Kohlbergs tests in age heterogeneous samples can be attributed to the fact that scores on both tests increase with age and (2) the two tests cannot be considered equivalent measures of the same con struct differing only in format. Results also in dicated that an empirically weighted scoring scheme is more sensitive to longitudinal change than is Rests P score. This sensitivity to longi tudinal trends is an important property for tests such as Rests which claim to be developmental and are frequently used to assess educational change. The empirically weighted sum had a significantly higher test-retest reliability (p < .05) than did a simple sum of item responses, and it had a signifi cantly higher correlation with Kohlbergs measure than did a theoretically weighted sum.

The long-term effects of early parent involvement and parent expectation in the USA

Building on social-cognitive theory and the expectancy-value theory, this study indicated that early parent expectations for children’s post-secondary educational attainment have a stronger effect on 8th-grade achievement than home-based parental involvement. With a nationally representative sample of kindergarten students and their parents in the United States of America, Structural Equation Modeling was employed in order to discern longitudinal effects on achievement via mediators. For instance, expectations held by parents in kindergarten exert much of their positive effect on adolescent academic achievement via expectations held in 8th grade. Student expectations (which are influenced by parental expectations) also significantly predict 8th grade achievement. Parent involvement in homework and grade checking in 8th grade has a slight negative effect on achievement. Home literacy in kindergarten predicts achievement in 8th grade indirectly via kindergarten achievement. These results indicate that parents can have a positive impact on academic achievement through early home literacy and maintaining a strong hope that their children will succeed in college. Because early parent expectations have long lasting effects on children, parent involvement interventions for young children need to be developed that also target elevating parental expectations. This study further clarifies the effects of the family environment on educational outcomes.

Development of a Brief, Multidimensional, Self-Report Instrument for Treatment Outcomes Assessment in Psychiatric Settings: Preliminary Findings.

Preliminary reliability and validity data are reported on a new, brief measure of psychiatric symptomatology. The Symptom Assessment–45 Questionnaire (SA-45) is a 45-item, patient self-report symptom inventory derived from the original Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90), using cluster analytic methods. The SA-45 consists of nine 5-item scales assessing each of the same symptom domains as its parent instrument with no item overlap across domains. The vast majority of the internal consistency reliabilities for the SA-45s nine scales were in the .70s and .80s across different age and patient status samples. As expected, both adolescent and adult patient samples generally differed significantly from nonpatient control samples, and patients at treatment follow-up differed significantly from patients at intake. Moreover, depressed patients with and without psychotic features differed significantly on three scales. A cluster analysis generally supported the nine-scale structure of the inventory, but it failed to consistently support the distinction between the Paranoid Ideation and Interpersonal Sensitivity scales. Limitations to the study are noted, but overall, the initial findings support the use of the SA-45 in clinical settings. Suggestions for needed future research are presented.

Introduction to multidimensional scaling and its applications

Although Richardson (1938) and Young and Householder (1938) may have officially initiated the multidimensional scaling (MDS) literature in psychology, frequent applications did not begin to appear until the seminal papers on nonmetric 1~I~S by Shepard (1962) and Kruskal (1964). Twenty years later, it is time to critically examine the MDS literature and its contribution to psychology. The first two papers in this special issue review statistical developments in MDS with an emphasis on the design of MDS studies. The last four papers scrutinize the ~11~5 research in four areas of com-

High School Mathematics Course-Taking by Gender and Ethnicity

The 1990 NAEP transcript data were used to study the number of Carnegie units (CUs) earned by students in seven categories of mathematics courses plus a miscellaneous category. On average, students earned 3.11 CUs, slightly more than the minimum of 3 suggested in A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). Fifty-four percent of the CUs were earned in the standard high school sequence (Algebra 1 and 2 and geometry), and 20% were earned in preformal courses (e.g., General Math 1 and 2). Overall, gender and ethnic differences in the total number of mathematics CUs were small, but ethnic differences relative to the type of math course represented by the course categories were large. Gender differences in mathematics course-taking are discussed in light of differences in college attendance patterns and achievement variability. Implications of ethnic differences for school and curriculum reform are discussed.

Religious Bias in Moral Development Research: A Psychometric Investigation

The present article reports two studies in which the validity of the Defining Issues Test (DI[T; Rest 1979) for conservative religious people was examined. In Study 1 we found that from 16 to 25 (of 72) DIT items had differential functioning; that is, the items were measuring a different construct for conservative religious subjects. Study 2 provided evidence that a large proportion of the differential item functioning observed in Study 1 was due to the religious connotations these items had for the religious subjects. We concluded that the DIT is not completely valid for people from some conservative religious cultures. Our studies join with other research in providing evidence that Kohlbergs theory of moral development is to some extent religiously and culturally limited.

Multidimensional Scaling and Factor Models of Test and Item Responses

This article discusses 2 alternatives to the factor model for test or item responses. From the two alternative models, proximity measures are derived so that the proximity measures are within an additive constant of squared euclidean distances between item or test parameters. Hence, multidimensional scaling (MDS) can be used to estimate the item parameters in the alternative models. Solutions that are based on the models are compared. In light of the response models, interpretation and appropriateness of factor and MDS solutions are discussed

The Fit between Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory General Occupational Themes and Holland's Hexagonal Model

Abstract Using a multidimensional scaling procedure, the present study examined the fit of Hollands RIASEC hexagon model to the internal relationships among the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) General Occupational Theme scales. SCII intercorrelation matrices for both sexes as reported in the SCII Manual were submitted, separately for each sex, to TORSCA 9 nonmetric scaling analysis. The Wakefield and Doughtie procedure was used to compare obtained TORSCA coordinates with expectations from Hollands hexagonal model. As a comparison, identical analyses were performed on Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) scale intercorrelation matrices, these data having originally served as the basis for advancing the utility of the hexagon model. For females, the SCII-hexagon fit was not good, with a near reversal of the Social and Enterprising scales. For males, the SCII-hexagon fit was good. For either SCII or VPI scales, the female data met expectations from Hollands model less often than the male data. A replication study on SCII data for 305 female clients of a vocational assessment clinic confirmed the previously observed sex differences. Sex differences in the structure of vocational preferences are discussed.

Using Hierarchical Linear Models to Examine Moderator Effects: Person-by-Organization Interactions

A cross-level interaction is said to occur when the effects of client or employee characteristics interact with organizational characteristics to influence an employee or client outcome variable. H...