Mark R. Nimlos

Current technologies for analysis of biomass thermochemical processing: a review.

Pyrolysis and gasification are two of the more promising utilization methods for the conversion of biomass toward a clean fuel source. To truly understand and model these processes requires detailed knowledge ranging from structural information of raw biomass, elemental composition, gas-phase reaction kinetics and mechanisms, and product distributions (both desired and undesired). The various analytical methods of biomass pyrolysis/gasification processing are discussed, including reactor types, analytical tools, and recent examples in the areas of (a) compositional analysis, (b) structural analysis, (c) reaction mechanisms, and (d) kinetic studies on biomass thermochemical processing.

A perspective on oxygenated species in the refinery integration of pyrolysis oil

Pyrolysis offers a rapid and efficient means to depolymerize lignocellulosic biomass, resulting in gas, liquid, and solid products with varying yields and compositions depending on the process conditions. With respect to manufacture of “drop-in” liquid transportation fuels from biomass, a potential benefit from pyrolysis arises from the production of a liquid or vapor that could possibly be integrated into existing refinery infrastructure, thus offsetting the capital-intensive investment needed for a smaller scale, standalone biofuels production facility. However, pyrolysis typically yields a significant amount of reactive, oxygenated species including organic acids, aldehydes, ketones, and oxygenated aromatics. These oxygenated species present significant challenges that will undoubtedly require pre-processing of a pyrolysis-derived stream before the pyrolysis oil can be integrated into the existing refinery infrastructure. Here we present a perspective of how the overall chemistry of pyrolysis products must be modified to ensure optimal integration in standard petroleum refineries, and we explore the various points of integration in the refinery infrastructure. In addition, we identify several research and development needs that will answer critical questions regarding the technical and economic feasibility of refinery integration of pyrolysis-derived products.

Products, Intermediates, Mass Balances, and Reaction Pathways for the Oxidation of Trichloroethylene in Air via Heterogeneous Photocatalysis.

Studies of the photocatalytic reaction of a solution of trichloroethylene in the air and in contact with UV-irradiated titanium dioxide have produced conflicting reports in regard to the composition of the product mixture. This paper resolves these discrepancies by reporting the results of experiments designed to identify and quantify intermediates, products, and reaction pathways. Mass balances are closed in differential and integral modes to ascertain the effects of factors such as the extent of conversion, feed composition, and photon energy on the composition of the product stream

Direct Detection of Products from the Pyrolysis of 2-Phenethyl Phenyl Ether

The pyrolysis of 2-phenethyl phenyl ether (PPE, C(6)H(5)C(2)H(4)OC(6)H(5)) in a hyperthermal nozzle (300-1350 °C) was studied to determine the importance of concerted and homolytic unimolecular decomposition pathways. Short residence times (<100 μs) and low concentrations in this reactor allowed the direct detection of the initial reaction products from thermolysis. Reactants, radicals, and most products were detected with photoionization (10.5 eV) time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PIMS). Detection of phenoxy radical, cyclopentadienyl radical, benzyl radical, and benzene suggest the formation of product by the homolytic scission of the C(6)H(5)C(2)H(4)-OC(6)H(5) and C(6)H(5)CH(2)-CH(2)OC(6)H(5) bonds. The detection of phenol and styrene suggests decomposition by a concerted reaction mechanism. Phenyl ethyl ether (PEE, C(6)H(5)OC(2)H(5)) pyrolysis was also studied using PIMS and using cryogenic matrix-isolated infrared spectroscopy (matrix-IR). The results for PEE also indicate the presence of both homolytic bond breaking and concerted decomposition reactions. Quantum mechanical calculations using CBS-QB3 were conducted, and the results were used with transition state theory (TST) to estimate the rate constants for the different reaction pathways. The results are consistent with the experimental measurements and suggest that the concerted retro-ene and Maccoll reactions are dominant at low temperatures (below 1000 °C), whereas the contribution of the C(6)H(5)C(2)H(4)-OC(6)H(5) homolytic bond scission reaction increases at higher temperatures (above 1000 °C).

Identification of amino acids responsible for processivity in a Family 1 carbohydrate-binding module from a fungal cellulase.

We probe the molecular-level behavior of the Family 1 carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) from a commonly studied fungal cellulase, the Family 7 cellobiohydrolase (Cel7A) from Trichoderma reesei, on the hydrophobic face of crystalline cellulose. With a fully atomistic model, we predict that the CBM alone exhibits regions of thermodynamic stability along a cellulose chain corresponding to a cellobiose unit, which is the catalytic product of the entire Cel7A enzyme. In addition, we determine which residues and the types of interactions that are responsible for the observed processivity length scale of the CBM: Y5, Q7, N29, and Y32. These results imply that the CBM can anchor the Cel7A enzyme at discrete points along a cellulose chain and thus aid in both recognizing cellulose chain ends for initial attachment to cellulose as well as aid in enzymatic catalysis by diffusing between stable wells on a length scale commensurate with the catalytic, processive cycle of Cel7A during cellulose hydrolysis. Comparison of other Family 1 CBMs show high functional homology to the four amino acids responsible for the processivity length scale on the surface of crystalline cellulose, which suggests that Family 1 CBMs may generally employ this type of approach for translation on the cellulose surface. Overall, this work provides further insight into the molecular-level mechanisms by which a CBM recognizes and interacts with cellulose.

A biophysical perspective on the cellulosome: new opportunities for biomass conversion

The cellulosome is a multiprotein complex, produced primarily by anaerobic microorganisms, which functions to degrade lignocellulosic materials. An important topic of current debate is whether cellulosomal systems display greater ability to deconstruct complex biomass materials (e.g. plant cell walls) than nonaggregated enzymes, and in so doing would be appropriate for improved, commercial bioconversion processes. To sufficiently understand the complex macromolecular processes between plant cell wall polymers, cellulolytic microbes, and their secreted enzymes, a highly concerted research approach is required. Adaptation of existing biophysical techniques and development of new science tools must be applied to this system. This review focuses on strategies likely to permit improved understanding of the bacterial cellulosome using biophysical approaches, with emphasis on advanced imaging and computational techniques.

Radical Chemistry in the Thermal Decomposition of Anisole and Deuterated Anisoles: An Investigation of Aromatic Growth

The pyrolyses of anisole (C(6)H(5)OCH(3)), d(3)-anisole (C(6)H(5)OCD(3)), and d(8)-anisole (C(6)D(5)OCD(3)) have been studied using a hyperthermal tubular reactor and photoionization reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Gas exiting the reactor is subject to an immediate supersonic expansion after a residence time of approximately 65 mus. This allows the detection of highly reactive radical intermediates. Our results confirm that the first steps in the thermal decomposition of anisole are the loss of a methyl group to form phenoxy radical, followed by ejection of a CO to form cyclopentadienyl radical (c-C(5)H(5)); C(6)H(5)OCH(3) --> C(6)H(5)O + CH(3); C(6)H(5)O --> c-C(5)H(5) + CO. At high temperatures (T(wall) = 1200 degrees C - 1300 degrees C) the c-C(5)H(5) decomposes to propargyl radical (CH(2)CCH) and acetylene; c-C(5)H(5) --> CH(2)CCH + C(2)H(2). The formation of benzene and naphthalene is demonstrated with 1 + 1 resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization. Propargyl radical recombination is a significant benzene formation channel. However, we show the majority of benzene is formed by a ring expansion reaction of methylcyclopentadiene (C(5)H(5)CH(3)) resulting from methyl radical addition to cyclopentadienyl radical; CH(3) + c-C(5)H(5) --> C(5)H(5)CH(3) --> C(6)H(6) + 2H. The naphthalene is generated from cyclopentadienyl radical recombination; 2c-C(5)H(5) --> C(5)H(5)-C(5)H(5) --> C(10)H(8) + 2H. The respective intermediate amu 79 and 129 species associated with these reactions are detected, confirming the stepwise nature of the decompositions. These reactions are verified by pyrolysis studies of cyclopentadiene (C(5)H(6)) and C(5)H(5)CH(3) obtained from rapid thermal dissociation of the respective dimer compounds, as well as pyrolysis studies of propargyl bromide (BrCH(2)CCH).

The Energy Landscape for the Interaction of the Family 1 Carbohydrate-Binding Module and the Cellulose Surface is Altered by Hydrolyzed Glycosidic Bonds

A multiscale simulation model is used to construct potential and free energy surfaces for the carbohydrate-binding module [CBM] from an industrially important cellulase, Trichoderma reesei cellobiohydrolase I, on the hydrophobic face of a coarse-grained cellulose Ibeta polymorph. We predict from computation that the CBM alone exhibits regions of stability on the hydrophobic face of cellulose every 5 and 10 A, corresponding to a glucose unit and a cellobiose unit, respectively. In addition, we predict a new role for the CBM: specifically, that in the presence of hydrolyzed cellulose chain ends, the CBM exerts a thermodynamic driving force to translate away from the free cellulose chain ends. This suggests that the CBM is not only required for binding to cellulose, as has been known for two decades, but also that it has evolved to both assist the enzyme in recognizing a cellulose chain end and exert a driving force on the enzyme during processive hydrolysis of cellulose.

Glucose reversion reaction kinetics.

The reversion reactions of glucose in mildly acidic aqueous solutions have been studied, and the kinetics of conversion to disaccharides has been modeled. The experiments demonstrate that, at high sugar loadings, up to 12 wt % of the glucose can be converted into reversion products. The reversion products observed are primarily disaccharides; no larger oligosaccharides were observed. Only disaccharides linked to the C1 carbon of one of the glucose residues were observed. The formation of 1,6-linked disaccharides was favored, and alpha-linked disaccharides were formed at higher concentrations than beta-linked disaccharides. This observation can be rationalized on the basis of steric effects. At temperatures >140 degrees C, the disaccharides reach equilibrium with glucose and the reversion reaction competes with dehydration reactions to form 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. As a result, disaccharide formation reaches a maximum at reaction times <10 min and decreases with time. At temperatures <130 degrees C, disaccharide formation reaches a maximum at reaction times >30 min. As expected, disaccharide formation exhibits a second-order dependence upon glucose concentration. Levoglucosan formation is also observed; because it shows a first-order dependence upon glucose concentration, its formation is more significant at low concentrations (10 mg mL(-1)), whereas disaccharide formation dominates at high concentrations (200 mg mL(-1)). Experiments conducted using glucose and its disaccharides were calibrated with readily available standards. The kinetic parameters for hydrolysis of some glucodisaccharides could be compared to published literature values. From these experiments, the kinetics and activation energies for the reversion reactions have been calculated. The rate parameters can be used to model the formation of the disaccharides as a function of reaction time and temperature. A new and detailed picture of the molecular mechanism of these industrially important reversion reactions has been developed.

Unimolecular thermal fragmentation of ortho-benzyne

The ortho-benzyne diradical, o-C(6)H(4) has been produced with a supersonic nozzle and its subsequent thermal decomposition has been studied. As the temperature of the nozzle is increased, the benzyne molecule fragments: o-C(6)H(4)+Delta--> products. The thermal dissociation products were identified by three experimental methods: (i) time-of-flight photoionization mass spectrometry, (ii) matrix-isolation Fourier transform infrared absorption spectroscopy, and (iii) chemical ionization mass spectrometry. At the threshold dissociation temperature, o-benzyne cleanly decomposes into acetylene and diacetylene via an apparent retro-Diels-Alder process: o-C(6)H(4)+Delta-->HC triple bond CH+HC triple bond C-C triple bond CH. The experimental Delta(rxn)H(298)(o-C(6)H(4)-->HC triple bond CH+HC triple bond C-C triple bond CH) is found to be 57+/-3 kcal mol(-1). Further experiments with the substituted benzyne, 3,6-(CH(3))(2)-o-C(6)H(2), are consistent with a retro-Diels-Alder fragmentation. But at higher nozzle temperatures, the cracking pattern becomes more complicated. To interpret these experiments, the retro-Diels-Alder fragmentation of o-benzyne has been investigated by rigorous ab initio electronic structure computations. These calculations used basis sets as large as [C(7s6p5d4f3g2h1i)H(6s5p4d3f2g1h)] (cc-pV6Z) and electron correlation treatments as extensive as full coupled cluster through triple excitations (CCSDT), in cases with a perturbative term for connected quadruples [CCSDT(Q)]. Focal point extrapolations of the computational data yield a 0 K barrier for the concerted, C(2v)-symmetric decomposition of o-benzyne, E(b)(o-C(6)H(4)-->HC triple bond CH+HC triple bond C-C triple bond CH)=88.0+/-0.5 kcal mol(-1). A barrier of this magnitude is consistent with the experimental results. A careful assessment of the thermochemistry for the high temperature fragmentation of benzene is presented: C(6)H(6)-->H+[C(6)H(5)]-->H+[o-C(6)H(4)]-->HC triple bond CH+HC triple bond C-C triple bond CH. Benzyne may be an important intermediate in the thermal decomposition of many alkylbenzenes (arenes). High engine temperatures above 1500 K may crack these alkylbenzenes to a mixture of alkyl radicals and phenyl radicals. The phenyl radicals will then dissociate first to benzyne and then to acetylene and diacetylene.