Mark Spiering

Automatic processes and the appraisal of sexual stimuli: Toward an information processing model of sexual arousal

A model of sexual arousal is presented that highlights the interaction between automatic and controlled cognitive processes and proposes that different levels of cognitive processing can differentially affect subjective and physiological sexual arousal. In addition, two studies are presented in which the role of automatic processes was explored using a priming paradigm. Subjects were sexually functional men. In the first study an effect of priming was found on penile erection. Unexpectedly, responses were lower in sexual than in neutral trials. In the second study support was found, using a behavioral measure (decision time), for the notion that the meaning of sexual stimuli can be perceived in a fast, automatic manner. Priming was most successful at lower levels of stimulus accessibility. The model and experimental approach presented in this article render starting points for new research on response discordance, gender differences in the processing of sexual stimuli, and inhibition of sexual response.

Priming the sexual system: Implicit versus explicit activation

We investigated implicit versus explicit activation of the sexual system using a priming paradigm in which sexual slides were preceded by either sexual or neutral primes. In the first experiment, primes were made inaccessible to conscious cognitive elaboration. Identification of sexual targets was facilitated by sexual primes, indicating that sexual representations in memory can be activated automatically. In the second experiment, in which primes were presented at a conscious level, identification of sexual targets was decelerated by sexual primes. Primes elicited subjective sexual arousal in Experiment 2 only, demonstrating that the activation of subjective experience requires conscious cognitive elaboration. With the addition of a sexually specific physiological measure, to be constructed to measure initial genital responses, this paradigm may help elucidate activational mechanisms of sexual response.

Sexual behavior and responsiveness to sexual stimuli following laboratory‐induced sexual arousal

Sexual excitement can be seen as an action disposition. In this study sexual arousal was expected to generate sexual action and to increase interest and responsiveness to sexual stimuli. In two experiments, male and female participants were exposed to a neutral or a sexual film. We measured genital and subjective responses to the film, and sexual behavior following the laboratory visit. In Experiment 2, film exposure was followed by a task in which participants rated the sexual arousability of neutral and sexual pictures. Rating time of the sexual pictures served as an index for sexual interest. Responsiveness to the sexual pictures was measured by modulation of spinal tendinous (T) reflexes. Sexual activity, but not sexual desire, was higher for participants in the sexual film condition than for participants in the neutral condition. Sexual interest and responsiveness to still pictures were not higher for participants in the sexual film condition than for those in the neutral film condition. In addition, men who saw the neutral film showed a greater responsiveness to still pictures than men who saw the sexual film. The results support the view of sexual arousal as an emotional state generating action tendencies and actual sexual behavior.

Appetitive and Aversive Classical Conditioning of Female Sexual Response

INTRODUCTION There is only limited evidence for appetitive classical conditioning of female sexual response, and to date modulation of female sexual response by aversive conditioning has not been studied. AIM The aim of this article is to study appetitive and aversive classical conditioning of sexual responses in women. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Vaginal pulse amplitude was assessed by vaginal photoplethysmography and ratings of affective value were obtained. METHOD Two differential conditioning experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, on appetitive conditioning, neutral pictures served as conditional stimuli (CSs) and genital vibrotactile stimulation as the unconditional stimulus (US). In Experiment 2, on aversive conditioning, erotic pictures served as CSs and a pain stimulus as US. In both experiments, only one CS (the CS+) was followed by the US during the acquisition phase. Conditioned responses were assessed during the extinction phase. RESULTS In Experiment 1, during the extinction phase, as expected vaginal pulse amplitude was higher in response to the CS+ than during the CS-. Also, the CS+ was rated as marginally more positive than the CS-. In Experiment 2, during the extinction phase, as expected vaginal pulse amplitude was lower in response to the CS+ than during the CS-, and the CS+ was rated as more negative than the CS-. CONCLUSIONS The results provide evidence for appetitive classical conditioning of sexual response in women, and are the first to show attenuation of sexual response in women by aversive conditioning.

Conscious processing of sexual information: Mechanisms of appraisal

To elucidate some of the activational mechanisms of sexual response, this study investigated the effects of conscious appraisal of sexual and neutral stimuli on a categorization task and on ratings of sexual arousal. Conscious appraisal is dependent on memory, regulatory, and attentional processes, interacting with one another. It is proposed that regulation is activated by attention, furnished by representations from implicit and explicit memory. Participants (26 men and 25 women) were asked to respond to “target” stimuli that were preceded by supraliminal “prime” stimuli. Primes and targets were operationalized by slides with sexual (i.e., romantic vs. explicit) and neutral content. In a cognitive task, participants had to group randomly presented targets as quickly as possible into sexual and nonsexual categories. Categorization of sexual targets was delayed when they were preceded by sexual primes compared to neutral primes. This was interpreted as an inhibitory process and compared with the Sexual Content-Induced Delay phenomenon (J. H. Geer & H. S. Bellard, 1996; J. H. Geer & J. S. Melton, 1997). No gender difference was found. In a subsequent affective task, participants provided an assessment of sexual arousal, followed by an evaluation of the target. This task was hypothesized to result in differential access to memory, where assessments of sexual arousal are influenced mainly by implicit memory, and where evaluations are influenced mainly by explicit memory. Gender differences were most prominent in the evaluation aspect of this task. It was concluded that cognitive processing of sexual information is similar for both genders, but that gender differences are present in affective processing of sexual information.

Conscious Processing of Sexual Information: Interference Caused by Sexual Primes

The concept Sexual Content-Induced Delay (SCID) refers to a hesitancy in decision making related to erotic material (Geer & Bellard, 1996; Geer & Melton, 1997). Empirical evidence about SCID stems from lexical decision tasks. Our previous studies also showed SCID effects in sex versus neutral categorization tasks in which pictures were used. In these tasks, recognition of sexual pictures is delayed when preceded by consciously presented sexual primes. In the current study, 2 manipulations were added to the categorization task to investigate underlying information processing mechanisms of SCID. Firstly, the appraisal process was influenced by varying the instructions. Secondly, primes with nonsexual emotional content were added to test the specificity of the SCID effect. Thirty-seven undergraduates were asked to categorize sexual and neutral pictures that were primed by sexual, threatening, and neutral primes. Participants ignored or focussed prime content dependent on 2 different instructions. Results showed that the SCID effect only emerged when sexual primes were ignored; however, threatening primes also decelerated recognition of sexual pictures after the ignore instruction. Results of the focus instruction were qualitatively different, that is, participants recognized sexual pictures faster when primed sexually. It was suggested that SCID can be interpreted as the activation of regulatory modules by emotional stimuli in the stage of elicitation of emotional response. In contrast, when the sexual system is already activated, it appears that decisions regarding sexual information are facilitated.

Preliminary Evidence for an Automatic Link Between Sex and Power Among Men Who Molest Children

Understanding critical motivational processes of sexual offenders may ultimately provide important clues to more effective treatments. Implicit, automatic cognitive processes have received minimal attention; however, a lexical decision experiment revealed automatic links between the concepts of power and sex among participants who self-reported attraction to sexual aggression. The current study replicates this experiment with a group of male child molesters and forensic and analogue controls. Subliminally presented sex words elicited a facilitation effect for power words among child molesters only; that is, sex to power associations were evident, as well as a trend for the reverse. These results provide preliminary evidence for an automatic sex-power association in child molesters and may point to a crucial pathological link in the cognitive schemata of sex offenders. As well, the current study suggests that paradigms from cognitive psychology may contribute to multimodal (risk) assessment of sexual offenders.

Symptomatology and neuropsychological functioning in cannabis using subjects at ultra-high risk for developing psychosis and healthy controls

Objective: The relationship between cannabis use and psychosis has been studied intensively. Few data, however, are available on the relationship between cannabis use, ultra-high risk for developing psychosis and neurocognition. The aim of the present cross-sectional study was therefore to investigate the relationship between cannabis use, ultra-high-risk (UHR) symptoms and cognitive functioning in UHR patients and healthy controls. Methods: A total of 63 ultra-high-risk patients (34 cannabis users) and 58 control subjects (28 cannabis users) were assessed with clinical measures and a neuropsychological test battery. Patients were eligible for the study if they were between the ages of 12 and 35 years and if they fell into one or more of the following inclusion groups: familial risk and reduced functioning, attenuated psychotic symptoms, brief limited intermittent psychotic symptoms and basic symptoms. Control subjects were eligible for the study if they were between the ages 12 and 35, had no present or past psychiatric illness, no family history of psychiatric illness, no drug use in the non-cannabis-using group, and use of at least four joints per week in the cannabis-using control group. Results: In the UHR and the control group, cannabis users experienced more basic symptoms and UHR symptoms than the non-cannabis users. Moreover, cannabis users in the control group performed at the level of the UHR subjects on a test of verbal memory and verbal fluency. Frequency of cannabis use correlated with severity of several UHR symptoms. Conclusions: Cannabis-using UHR patients have more basic symptoms than non-using patients. In addition, healthy cannabis users have more subclinical UHR and basic symptoms and more neuropsychological dysfunctions than non-cannabis users. More frequent cannabis use was related to increased severity of certain UHR symptoms.

Pre-adolescent gender differences in associations between temperament, coping, and mood

Relationships between temperament, coping, depressive and aggressive mood in 8-12-year-old boys (n = 185) and girls (n = 219) were investigated, with a focus on gender differences. Children completed two self-report questionnaires: the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised and Childrens Coping Strategies Checklist-Revised1. Comparing boys and girls on three temperament dimensions, positive affectivity, negative affectivity and effortful control, girls scored higher than boys on the first two dimensions. Girls also scored higher than boys on avoidant coping and depressive mood. For both boys and girls, aggressive and depressive mood were predicted by negative affectivity. Coping did not add towards this prediction. Gender specific models of temperament, coping and depressive mood were tested. For girls, both effortful control and active problem solving, accounted for the variability in depressive mood. For boys, only effortful control accounted for variance in depressive mood. Results showed that gender specific vulnerability to depression in girls is apparent before adolescence and can be linked to temperament and coping.

Nonconscious processing of sexual information: A generalization to women

Sexually competent stimuli may nonconsciously activate sexual memory and set up sexual responding. In men, subliminally presented sexual pictures facilitated recognition of sexual information (Spiering, Everaerd, & Janssen, 2003). The goal of the two experiments reported here was to investigate to what extent this result can be generalized to women. A direct replication in women failed in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, besides the male‐oriented sexual picture set, pictures of two other sets were presented: female‐oriented sexual pictures and baby pictures. Effects of the menstrual cycle were also examined. In Experiment 2, only male‐oriented pictures showed a facilitation effect. Sensitivity for reproductive stimuli was enhanced during the midluteal phase. Like men, women may nonconsciously recognize a stimulus as sexual. This recognition process seems unrelated to the potential of the stimulus to elicit subjective arousal.