Markku T. Nousiainen

Comparison of expert instruction and computer-based video training in teaching fundamental surgical skills to medical students

BACKGROUND Practice using computer-based video instruction (CBVI) leads to improvements in surgical skills proficiency. This study investigated the benefits of the introduction of (a) learner-directed, interactive video training and (b) the addition of expert instruction on the learning and retention of the basic surgical skills of suturing and knot-tying in medical students. METHODS Using bench models, students were pre-tested on a suturing and knot-tying skill after viewing an instructional video. The students were then randomly assigned to three practice conditions: self-study with video; self-study with interactive video; or the combination of self-study with interactive video with the addition of subsequent expert instruction. All participants underwent 18 trials of practice in their assigned training condition. The effectiveness of training was assessed by an immediate post-test and a retention test one month later. Performance was evaluated using expert- and computer-based assessments. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA. RESULTS There were no differences in expert- and computer-based assessments between groups at pre-test. Although all three groups demonstrated significant improvements on both measures between the pre- and post-tests as well as between pre-tests and retention-tests (P < .01), no significant differences were detected among the three groups. CONCLUSION This study shows that in surgical novices, neither the inclusion of expert instruction nor the addition of self-directed interaction with video leads to further improvements in skill development or retention. These findings further support the possible implementation of CBVI within surgical skills curricula.

Three-Year Experience with an Innovative, Modular Competency-Based Curriculum for Orthopaedic Training

In response to multiple stresses in current surgical education, we developed a new model of orthopaedic training that combines curricular reform with a competency-based framework. For the past three years, this pilot program has been run in parallel to our conventional curriculum for a select number of residents. In this article, we share our initial experience with this approach to training and describe its successes and challenges. We review the existing concerns with surgical training in a new era of work-hour restrictions and describe the pedagogical rationale for the model that we have developed. We then discuss the design of this curriculum, including the basic tenets and principles that guided our approach. Finally, we detail our preliminary results, which add evidence that a focused, modular-based program, with concentrated teaching of technical skills and frequent formative and summative evaluations, can result in rapid acceleration in surgical competency, knowledge acquisition, and comprehensive professional skills. This new model deserves further study and consideration for implementation on a broader scale in today’s challenging medical education environment. There have been questions about our general approach to surgical education for quite some time. Charles Bosk catalogued some of the good and much of the bad that went along with residency education a quarter of a century ago1. Similarly, William Nolan2 described the rigors of surgical training in Bellevue Hospital in New York, NY. The reverberations from The Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry3 sparked a focus on the issue of patient safety. This issue was reinforced with the dissemination of the Institute of Medicine report, To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System 4. Preoccupation with the issue of patient safety has led to many positive outcomes in patient care, but an important side effect has been decreased opportunities for residents for …

Reflections on Competency-Based Education and Training for Surgical Residents

Although a number of surgical training institutions have started to adopt competency-based education (CBE) frameworks for training, the debate about the value of this model continues. Some proponents regard CBE as a method of guaranteeing residents competence, whereas others consider CBE to be reductive and lacking the richness in experiences that the traditional model offers. In this article, we reflect on CBE and review some salient attempts to implement CBE in surgical education. We identify challenges facing postgraduate surgical education, some of which are motivating educators to consider incorporating CBE into their curricula. We look at some purported advantages and disadvantages of CBE and describe initial reports from CBE programs currently being developed.

Orthopaedic Boot Camp II: Examining the retention rates of an intensive surgical skills course

BACKGROUND We examined retention rates for basic surgical skills taught through a 1-month intensive laboratory boot camp-style course at the onset of residency. METHODS We present data from 3 groups, each composed of 6 residents. The first group consisted of residents from a new competency-based curriculum (CBC). They started residency training with the Toronto Orthopaedic Boot Camp course. The other 2 groups were junior (JR) and senior (SR) residents from a traditional program whose residency training included no such course. Performance on targeted technical skills was tested using an objective structured assessment of technical skills examination 7 months after the onset of training for the CBC and JR groups and at least 43 months after the onset of training for the SR group. RESULTS The mean global rating scale score for the CBC group immediately after the skills course was 4.3, which was maintained 6 months later. There were no significant performance differences between the CBC and SR groups. Both the CBC and SR groups performed significantly better than the JR group (mean global rating scale 3.7; F[2, 15] = 12.269, P < .001). CONCLUSION We conclude that a surgical skills course at the onset of residency is an effective mechanism for teaching targeted technical skills and that skills taught in this manner can have excellent retention rates. Furthermore, an early focus on technical skills allows junior residents to perform at the same level as senior residents for certain tasks and may privilege later learning.

Radiotherapy for the prophylaxis of heterotopic ossification: a systematic review and meta-analysis of published data.

INTRODUCTION Following surgery, the formation of heterotopic ossification (HTO) can limit mobility and impair quality of life. Radiotherapy has been proven to provide efficacious prophylaxis against HTO, especially in high-risk settings. PURPOSE The current review aims to determine the factors influencing HTO formation in patients receiving prophylactic radiotherapy. METHODS A systematic search of the literature was conducted on Ovid Medline, Embase and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Studies were included if they reported the percentage of sites developing heterotopic ossification after receiving a specified dose of prophylactic radiotherapy. Weighted linear regression analysis was conducted for continuous or categorical predictors. RESULTS Extracted from 61 articles, a total of 5464 treatment sites were included, spanning 85 separate study arms. Most sites were from the hip (97.7%), from United States patients (55.2%), and had radiation prescribed postoperatively (61.6%) at a dose of 700cGy (61.0%). After adjusting for radiation site, there was no statistically significant relationship between the percentage of sites developing HTO and radiation dose (p=0.1) or whether radiation was administered preoperatively or postoperatively (p=0.1). Sites with previous HTO formation were more likely to develop recurrent HTO than those without previous HTO formation (p=0.04). There was a statistically significant negative relationship between the HTO development and the cohort mean year of treatment (p=0.007). CONCLUSION Decreases in rates of HTO over time in this patient population may be a function of more efficacious surgical regimens and prophylactic radiotherapy.

The influence of the number of cortices of screw purchase and ankle position in Weber C ankle fracture fixation.

Objectives: Biomechanical and clinical studies have shown that syndesmosis screws may be indicated in repairing Weber C ankle fractures. This study sought to determine the effect of the number of cortices of screw purchase and ankle position on syndesmosis width and tibiotalar rotation in Weber C ankle fracture fixation. Methods: Nine pairs of human cadaver legs were mechanically tested to determine syndesmosis width and tibiotalar rotation. This was done for intact specimens and after a Weber C injury was created and repaired with 3 and 4 cortices of purchase. Tests were performed for no axial load and for axial loads of 700 N with and without external torques of 1 and 5 Nm on the ankle. Torque-to-failure tests were also done for 4 cortices of fixation. Results: In comparison to baseline, the syndesmosis width was significantly decreased when the syndesmosis screw was inserted in plantarflexion with either 0 or 1 Nm of torque. Syndesmosis width significantly increased when the screw was inserted in dorsiflexion for 5 Nm of torque. For tibiotalar rotation, no statistical differences were detected for either plantarflexion or dorsiflexion when compared to baseline, except with axial load. Syndesmosis width was not affected by the number of cortices purchased by the syndesmosis screw. Failure torque and failure angle were also measured. Conclusions: Because no difference was seen between 3 or 4 cortices, it is the surgeons choice in determining how many cortices of fixation are achieved.

Simulation for Teaching Orthopaedic Residents in a Competency-based Curriculum: Do the Benefits Justify the Increased Costs?

BackgroundAlthough simulation-based training is becoming widespread in surgical education and research supports its use, one major limitation is cost. Until now, little has been published on the costs of simulation in residency training. At the University of Toronto, a novel competency-based curriculum in orthopaedic surgery has been implemented for training selected residents, which makes extensive use of simulation. Despite the benefits of this intensive approach to simulation, there is a need to consider its financial implications and demands on faculty time.Questions/purposesThis study presents a cost and faculty work-hours analysis of implementing simulation as a teaching and evaluation tool in the University of Toronto’s novel competency-based curriculum program compared with the historic costs of using simulation in the residency training program.MethodsAll invoices for simulation training were reviewed to determine the financial costs before and after implementation of the competency-based curriculum. Invoice items included costs for cadavers, artificial models, skills laboratory labor, associated materials, and standardized patients. Costs related to the surgical skills laboratory rental fees and orthopaedic implants were waived as a result of special arrangements with the skills laboratory and implant vendors. Although faculty time was not reimbursed, faculty hours dedicated to simulation were also evaluated. The academic year of 2008 to 2009 was chosen to represent an academic year that preceded the introduction of the competency-based curriculum. During this year, 12 residents used simulation for teaching. The academic year of 2010 to 2011 was chosen to represent an academic year when the competency-based curriculum training program was functioning parallel but separate from the regular stream of training. In this year, six residents used simulation for teaching and assessment. The academic year of 2012 to 2013 was chosen to represent an academic year when simulation was used equally among the competency-based curriculum and regular stream residents for teaching (60 residents) and among 14 competency-based curriculum residents and 21 regular stream residents for assessment.ResultsThe total costs of using simulation to teach and assess all residents in the competency-based curriculum and regular stream programs (academic year 2012–2013) (CDN 155,750, USD 158,050) were approximately 15 times higher than the cost of using simulation to teach residents before the implementation of the competency-based curriculum (academic year 2008–2009) (CDN 10,090, USD 11,140). The number of hours spent teaching and assessing trainees increased from 96 to 317 hours during this period, representing a threefold increase.ConclusionsAlthough the financial costs and time demands on faculty in running the simulation program in the new competency-based curriculum at the University of Toronto have been substantial, augmented learner and trainer satisfaction has been accompanied by direct evidence of improved and more efficient learning outcomes.Clinical RelevanceThe higher costs and demands on faculty time associated with implementing simulation for teaching and assessment must be considered when it is used to enhance surgical training.

The use osteochondral allograft in the treatment of a severe femoral head fracture.

This study reviews the second case in the literature involving the use of frozen osteochondral allograft to reconstruct a femoral head fracture-dislocation. The case involved significant, unreconstructable damage to the weightbearing area of the femoral head in an 18-year-old male. Clinical and diagnostic imaging follow up at 46 months revealed that despite magnetic resonance imaging and radiographic evidence of progressive arthrosis in the hip, including subchondral cystic change in the femoral head and localized cartilage loss in the acetabulum and femoral head, the patient had excellent function with no complications (Harris hip score 100, hip dysfunction and osteoarthritis outcome score 62, musculoskeletal function assesment score 22, SF-36 score 81). The use of osteochondral allograft may serve as a useful tool for the orthopaedic surgeon faced with an unreconstructable femoral head fracture-dislocation in a young patient.

Removal of an iliosacral screw entrapping the L5 nerve root after failed posterior pelvic ring fixation: a case report.

We present a case of a pelvic ring fracture that was originally treated with anterior symphyseal plating and a misplaced percutaneous iliosacral screw. The anterior extraosseus portion of the misplaced 7.3-mm cannulated screw irritated the L5 nerve root, resulting in a radiculopathy. Subsequent surgery involved and mandated removing the bent screw after open identification and protection of the L5 nerve root to avoid further nerve damage; the sacroiliac joint was subsequently debrided and fused. This case represents a complication of acute percutaneous iliosacral screw fixation of pelvic ring injuries and the subsequent strategy for successful salvage.

Surgical fellowship training in Canada: what is its current status and is improvement required?

This paper examines current issues concerning surgical fellowship training in Canada. Other than information from a few studies of fellowship training in North America, there are scant data on this subject in the literature. Little is known about the demographic characteristics of those who pursue fellowship training in Canada, what the experiences and expectations are of fellows and their supervisors with respect to the strengths and weaknesses of this level of training, or how this level of education fits in with Canadian undergraduate and postgraduate medical training. We summarize current knowledge about fellowship training in Canada as it pertains to demographic characteristics, finances, work hours, residency training, preparation for clinical and research work and satisfaction with training. Most information on surgical fellowship training comes from the United States. As such, we used information from American studies to supplement the Canadian data. Because a surgical fellowship experience in Canada may be different from that in the United States, we propose that Canadian surgical fellows and their supervisors should be surveyed to gain an understanding of such information. This knowledge could be used to improve surgical fellowship training in Canada.