Markku Tukiainen

An eye-tracking methodology for characterizing program comprehension processes

Program comprehension processes have previously been studied using methodologies such as think-aloud or comprehension summary analysis. Eye-tracking, however, has not been previously widely applied to studies of behavioral aspects of programming. We present a study in which program comprehension was investigated with a help of a remote eye-tracker. Novice and intermediate programmers used a program visualization tool to aid their comprehension while the location of fixations, fixation durations and attention switching between the areas of interest were recorded.In this paper 1) we propose an approach how to investigate trends in repeated-measures sparse-data of few cases captured by an eye-tracker and 2) using this technique, we characterize the development of program comprehension strategies during dynamic program visualization with help of eye-movement data.

Temporal eye-tracking data: evolution of debugging strategies with multiple representations

The challenges in empirical eye-tracking studies of usability or complex problem solving include 1) how to effectively analyze the eye-tracking data, and 2) how to interpret and relate the resulting measures to the user cognitive processing. We conducted a reanalysis of eye-tracking data from a recent study that involved programmers of two experience groups debugging a program with the help of multiple representations. The proportional fixation time on each area of interest (AOI), frequency of visual attention switches between the areas, and the type of switch were investigated during five consequential phases of ten minutes of debugging. We increased the granularity of the focus on the user processing several times, allowing us to construct a better picture of the process. In addition, plotting the areas of interest in time supported a visual analysis and comparison with the quantitative data. We found repetitive patterns of visual attention that were associated with less experience in programming and lower performance. We also discovered that at the beginning of the process programmers made use of both the code and visualization while frequently switching between them. At a later stage of debugging, more experienced programmers began to increasingly integrate also the output of the program and employed a high-frequency of visual attention switching to coordinate the three representations.

The expanding focus of HCI: case culture

The focus of the research in human-computer interaction (HCI) continues to expand. One example of this is the growing interest in national and ethnic culture as a research topic. In this review, we examine the emerging field of cultural HCI by systematically analysing culture-related literature from five major HCI forums and past sixteen years. We focus on research methodology, technologies and cultures covered, theoretical underpinnings and referencing practices. We also discuss problems found on the basis of the review and provide perspectives on the future research into cultural issues.

Validating the Restricted Focus Viewer: A study using eye-movement tracking

Investigation of cognitive processes and visual attention during problem-solving tasks is an important part of understanding human reasoning. Eyetracking technology has proven to have many benefits in revealing visual attention patterns. However, the high price of accurate eyetrackers and the difficulties associated with using them represent major obstacles to their wider application. Therefore, previous studies have sought to find alternatives to eyetracking. The Restricted Focus Viewer (RFV) brings a small part of an otherwise blurred display to the focus of visual attention: A user controls what part of the screen is in focus by using a computer mouse and explicitly selecting the area to be shown in focus. Recently, some studies have employed the RFV to investigate cognitive behavior of users, and some researchers have even enhanced the tool to study usability. We replicated a previous RFV-based study while also recording gaze data. We compared the attention allocation in time and space as reported by the RFV and an eyetracker. Further, we investigated the effects of RFV’s display blurring on the visual attention allocation of 18 novice and expert programmers. Our results indicate that the data obtained from the two tools differ. Also, the RFV-blurring interferes with the strategies utilized by experts, and has an effect on fixation duration. However, task performance was preserved.

A method to study visual attention aspects of collaboration: eye-tracking pair programmers simultaneously

The previous research of visual attention has mostly considered the situations in which a single person performs a task. The current eye-tracking devices and software support this research situation. Applications of eye-tracking in the research of collaborative tasks have been rare to date. We present a methodological framework of a research in which visual attention of pair programmers with a single display has been studied. We discuss the challenges of such research when conducted in real-world settings and the requirements on the eye-tracking setups. The hardware setups and software solutions to the problems of acquisition and synchronization of streams of eye-tracking data are presented. We outline the methodological questions of future visual attention research of collaborative tasks.

Effects of display blurring on the behavior of novices and experts during program debugging

The Restricted Focus Viewer (RFV) relates a small part of an otherwise blurred display to the focus of visual attention. A user controls which part of the screen is in focus by using a computer mouse. The RFV tool records these movements. Recently, some studies used the RFV to investigate the cognitive behavior of users and some others have even enhanced the tool for research of usability issues.We report on an eye-tracking study where the effects of RFVs display blurring on the visual attention allocation of 18 novice and expert programmers were investigated. We replicated a previous RFV-based study and analyzed attention switching and fixation durations reported by an eye tracker. Our results indicate that the blurring interferes with the strategies possessed by experts and has an effect on fixation duration: however, we found that debugging performance was preserved. We discuss possible reasons and implications.

Software Process Improvement in Small and Medium Sized Software Enterprises in Eastern Finland: A State-of-the-Practice Study

Software Process Improvement (SPI) has been proven to increase product and service quality as organizations apply it to achieve their business objectives. Improvement needs of small organizations are same as larger organizations, i.e. they want to achieve better results in software projects, product quality, and customer satisfaction and put an end to the project overruns and failures. However the resources of the small company for SPI-work are often limited and external support seems to be essential. Companies are lacking experience and knowledge how to define and implement appropriate improvement plans and actions. The paper presents current results of software process assessment and improvement work done at University of Joensuu in cooperation with small and medium-sized software companies.

Development of the TUP model - evaluating educational software

Usability evaluation is a crucial step in the iterative software development life-cycle, leading into successful usage of systems. However, most of the usability evaluation methods and tools do not consider all aspects of educational environments. These lacks materialize as unusable results that lead to failures in educational software. Often these results are not comparable and credible, or easily accessible to educators selecting the proper systems for use in their settings; the technology, usability, pedagogy (TUP) evaluation model equally concentrates on the technological, usability, and instructional aspects of educational environments, leading to complete evaluations. In this paper we present the TUP model with the use scenario included and our current WWW prototype of evaluation system based upon it.

Practices in Old Age ICT Education

Lifelong learning as an individual activity that spans over one’s life is not a reality yet, despite the general guides of educational policy. Especially the elderly, those over 65 years, are in danger of lagging behind. The solid trust in one’s own activity and learning skills is required, besides, many aged today lack the learning culture (Tikkanen, 2003, Gerontologia, Helsinki: Duodecim). In step with an increasing elderly population, more attention needs to be paid on proper old age education technology, pedagogy, motivation, and needs. This chapter presents the experience gained from guiding elderly into the use of computers and Internet from three contexts. In addition, the chapter presents principles from literature on old age education based on cognitive aging (compensating and supporting the deficiencies and strengths) not forgetting the impact of empowerment by current ICTs in the life of elderly people. First, directing computer clubs for the elderly is demonstrated based on a WWW-questionnaire, as well as observations made during years 2007–2008 in Pieksamaki, Finland, and from Seniors’ Club. Second, we show experiences from courses and home teaching for elderly. Finally, we discuss these forms of learning in two models: Chaffin–Harlow model of cognitive learning (Chaffin & Harlow, 2005, Educational Gerontology) and TUP-model for the contextual factors (Bednarik, Gerdt, Miraftabi, & Tukiainen, 2004, Proceedings of the ICALT 2004: 4th IEEE international conference on advanced learning technologies, Joensuu, Finland: IEEE), that is to say from the learner’s vantage point and that of the real-world context where learning takes place. The results show that the learning program for the elderly is strongly facilitated by peer support which is experienced during informal club-based activities, as well as having a jointly planned content which is tailored to their needs, motivation, and ability.

Evaluating user experience of autistic children through video observation

Most of the current methods for user experience evaluation require that users are able to reflect on and communicate their own experience. Such methods, however, are not suitable when users have limited communication skills. We conducted video observations to evaluate user experience of four low-functioning children with an autism spectrum disorder while they were playing a prototype of a game. Our preliminary results suggest that despite its limitations, video observation can be a useful technique for evaluating episodic user experience of children with special needs.