Marko Kaksonen

A Modular Design for the Clathrin- and Actin-Mediated Endocytosis Machinery

Endocytosis depends on an extensive network of interacting proteins that execute a series of distinct subprocesses. Previously, we used live-cell imaging of six budding-yeast proteins to define a pathway for association of receptors, adaptors, and actin during endocytic internalization. Here, we analyzed the effects of 61 deletion mutants on the dynamics of this pathway, revealing functions for 15 proteins, and we analyzed the dynamics of 8 of these proteins. Our studies provide evidence for four protein modules that cooperate to drive coat formation, membrane invagination, actin-meshwork assembly, and vesicle scission during clathrin/actin-mediated endocytosis. We found that clathrin facilitates the initiation of endocytic-site assembly but is not needed for membrane invagination or vesicle formation. Finally, we present evidence that the actin-meshwork assembly that drives membrane invagination is nucleated proximally to the plasma membrane, opposite to the orientation observed for previously studied actin-assembly-driven motility processes.

Harnessing actin dynamics for clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Actin polymerization often occurs at the plasma membrane to drive the protrusion of lamellipodia and filopodia at the leading edge of migrating cells. A role for actin polymerization in another cellular process that involves the reshaping of the plasma membrane — namely endocytosis — has recently been established. Live-cell imaging studies are shedding light on the order and timing of the molecular events and mechanisms of actin function during endocytosis.

A Pathway for Association of Receptors, Adaptors, and Actin during Endocytic Internalization

In budding yeast, many proteins involved in endocytic internalization, including adaptors and actin cytoskeletal proteins, are localized to cortical patches of differing protein composition. Using multicolor real-time fluorescence microscopy and particle tracking algorithms, we define an early endocytic pathway wherein an invariant sequence of changes in cortical patch protein composition correlates with changes in patch motility. Three Arp2/3 activators each showed a distinct behavior, suggesting distinct patch-related endocytic functions. Actin polymerization occurs late in the endocytic pathway and is required both for endocytic internalization and for patch disassembly. In cells lacking the highly conserved endocytic protein Sla2p, patch motility was arrested and actin comet tails associated with endocytic patch complexes. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching of the actin comet tails revealed that endocytic complexes are nucleation sites for rapid actin polymerization. Attention is now focused on the mechanisms by which the order and timing of events in this endocytic pathway are achieved.

Correlated fluorescence and 3D electron microscopy with high sensitivity and spatial precision

New methodology improves the spatial resolution and sensitivity of correlative light and EM tomography, revealing new insights into dynamic cellular processes.

Cortactin-Src Kinase Signaling Pathway Is Involved in N-syndecan-dependent Neurite Outgrowth

N-syndecan (syndecan-3) was previously isolated as a cell surface receptor for heparin-binding growth-associated molecule (HB-GAM) and suggested to mediate the neurite growth-promoting signal from cell matrix-bound HB-GAM to the cytoskeleton of neurites. However, it is unclear whether N-syndecan would possess independent signaling capacity in neurite growth or in related cell differentiation phenomena. In the present study, we have transfected N18 neuroblastoma cells with a rat N-syndecan cDNA and show that N-syndecan transfection clearly enhances HB-GAM-dependent neurite growth and that the transfected N-syndecan distributes to the growth cones and the filopodia of the neurites. The N-syndecan-dependent neurite outgrowth is inhibited by the tyrosine kinase inhibitors herbimycin A and PP1. Biochemical studies show that a kinase activity, together with its substrate(s), binds specifically to the cytosolic moiety of N-syndecan immobilized to an affinity column. Western blotting reveals both c-Src and Fyn in the active fractions. In addition, cortactin, tubulin, and a 30-kDa protein are identified in the kinase-active fractions that bind to the cytosolic moiety of N-syndecan. Ligation of N-syndecan in the transfected cells by HB-GAM increases phosphorylation of c-Src and cortactin. We suggest that N-syndecan binds a protein complex containing Src family tyrosine kinases and their substrates and that N-syndecan acts as a neurite outgrowth receptor via the Src kinase-cortactin pathway.

Transgenic expression of syndecan-1 uncovers a physiological control of feeding behavior by syndecan-3.

Transgenic expression in the hypothalamus of syndecan-1, a cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) and modulator of ligand-receptor encounters, produces mice with hyperphagia and maturity-onset obesity resembling mice with reduced action of alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone (alphaMSH). Via their HS chains, syndecans potentiate the action of agouti-related protein and agouti signaling protein, endogenous inhibitors of alphaMSH. In wild-type mice, syndecan-3, the predominantly neural syndecan, is expressed in hypothalamic regions that control energy balance. Food deprivation increases hypothalamic syndecan-3 levels several-fold. Syndecan-3 null mice, otherwise apparently normal, respond to food deprivation with markedly reduced reflex hyperphagia. We propose that oscillation of hypothalamic syndecan-3 levels physiologically modulates feeding behavior.

Plasma Membrane Reshaping during Endocytosis Is Revealed by Time-Resolved Electron Tomography

Endocytosis, like many dynamic cellular processes, requires precise temporal and spatial orchestration of complex protein machinery to mediate membrane budding. To understand how this machinery works, we directly correlated fluorescence microscopy of key protein pairs with electron tomography. We systematically located 211 endocytic intermediates, assigned each to a specific time window in endocytosis, and reconstructed their ultrastructure in 3D. The resulting virtual ultrastructural movie defines the protein-mediated membrane shape changes during endocytosis in budding yeast. It reveals that clathrin is recruited to flat membranes and does not initiate curvature. Instead, membrane invagination begins upon actin network assembly followed by amphiphysin binding to parallel membrane segments, which promotes elongation of the invagination into a tubule. Scission occurs on average 9 s after initial bending when invaginations are ∼100 nm deep, releasing nonspherical vesicles with 6,400 nm2 mean surface area. Direct correlation of protein dynamics with ultrastructure provides a quantitative 4D resource.

Interactome map uncovers phosphatidylserine transport by oxysterol-binding proteins

The internal organization of eukaryotic cells into functionally specialized, membrane-delimited organelles of unique composition implies a need for active, regulated lipid transport. Phosphatidylserine (PS), for example, is synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and then preferentially associates—through mechanisms not fully elucidated—with the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Lipids can travel via transport vesicles. Alternatively, several protein families known as lipid-transfer proteins (LTPs) can extract a variety of specific lipids from biological membranes and transport them, within a hydrophobic pocket, through aqueous phases. Here we report the development of an integrated approach that combines protein fractionation and lipidomics to characterize the LTP–lipid complexes formed in vivo. We applied the procedure to 13 LTPs in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae: the six Sec14 homology (Sfh) proteins and the seven oxysterol-binding homology (Osh) proteins. We found that Osh6 and Osh7 have an unexpected specificity for PS. In vivo, they participate in PS homeostasis and the transport of this lipid to the plasma membrane. The structure of Osh6 bound to PS reveals unique features that are conserved among other metazoan oxysterol-binding proteins (OSBPs) and are required for PS recognition. Our findings represent the first direct evidence, to our knowledge, for the non-vesicular transfer of PS from its site of biosynthesis (the endoplasmic reticulum) to its site of biological activity (the plasma membrane). We describe a new subfamily of OSBPs, including human ORP5 and ORP10, that transfer PS and propose new mechanisms of action for a protein family that is involved in several human pathologies such as cancer, dyslipidaemia and metabolic syndrome.

Heparin-binding proteins HB-GAM (pleiotrophin) and amphoterin in the regulation of cell motility ☆

Fractionation of proteins from perinatal rat brain was monitored using a neurite outgrowth assay. Two neurite-promoting proteins, HB-GAM (heparin-binding growth-associated molecule; also known as pleiotrophin) and amphoterin, were isolated, cloned and produced by baculovirus expression for structural and functional studies. HB-GAM is highly expressed in embryonic and early post-natal fiber pathways of the nervous system, and it enhances axonal growth/guidance by binding to N-syndecan (syndecan-3) at the neuron surface. N-syndecan in turn communicates with the cytoskeleton through the cortactin/src-kinase pathway to enhance neurite extension. In addition to N-syndecan, the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan RPTP beta/zeta (receptor-type tyrosine phosphatase beta/zeta) is implicated in the receptor mechanism of HB-GAM. HB-GAM is also prominently expressed in developing and regenerating bone as a matrix-bound cue for migration of osteoblasts/osteoblast precursors to the site of bone deposition. HB-GAM is suggested to regulate motility in osteoblasts through a similar mechanism as in neurons. Structural studies using heteronuclear NMR reveal two similar protein domains in HB-GAM, both consisting of three anti-parallel beta-strands. Search of sequence databases shows that the beta structures of HB-GAM and of the similar domains of MK (midkine) correspond to the thrombospondin type I (TSR) sequence motif. We suggest that the TSR sequence motif, found in several neurite outgrowth-promoting and other cell surface and matrix-binding proteins, defines a beta structure similar to those found in HB-GAM and MK. In general, amphoterin is highly expressed in immature and transformed cells. We suggest a model, according to which amphoterin is an autocrine/paracrine regulator of invasive migration. Amphoterin binds to RAGE (receptor of advanced glycation end products), an immunoglubulin superfamily member related to N-CAM (neural cell adhesion molecule), that communicates with the GTPases Cdc42 and Rac to regulate cell motility. In addition, ligation of RAGE by amphoterin activates NF-kappaB to regulate transcription.

Endocytic vesicle scission by lipid phase boundary forces.

Endocytosis in budding yeast is thought to occur in several phases. First, the membrane invaginates and then elongates into a tube. A vesicle forms at the end of the tube, eventually pinching off to form a “free” vesicle. Experiments show that actin polymerization is an active participant in the endocytic process, along with a number of membrane-associated proteins. Here we investigate the possible roles of these components in driving vesiculation by constructing a quantitative model of the process beginning at the stage where the membrane invagination has elongated into a tube encased in a sheath of membrane-associated protein. This protein sheath brings about the scission step where the vesicle separates from the tube. When the protein sheath is dynamin, it is commonly assumed that scission is brought about by the constriction of the sheath. Here, we show that an alternative scenario can work as well: The protein sheath acts as a “filter” to effect a phase separation of lipid species. The resulting line tension tends to minimize the interface between the tube region and the vesicle region. Interestingly, large vesicle size can further facilitate the reduction of the interfacial diameter down to a few nanometers, small enough so that thermal fluctuations can fuse the membrane and pinch off the vesicle. To deform the membrane into the tubular vesicle shape, the membrane elastic resistance forces must be balanced by some additional forces that we show can be generated by actin polymerization and/or myosin I. These active forces are shown to be important in successful scission processes as well.