Marlaine E. Lockheed

Improving Educational Efficiency in Developing Countries: what do we know?[1]

[1] The World Bank does not accept responsibility for the views expressed herein, which are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the World Bank or its affiliated organisations. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions are the results of research or analysis supported by the Bank; they do not necessarily represent official policy of the Bank.

How Textbooks Affect Achievement in Developing Countries: Evidence From Thailand

For the past decade, researchers have documented the effects of textbooks on achievement in developing countries, but no research has explored the mechanisms that account for this contribution. This paper analyzes longitudinal data from a national sample of eighth-grade mathematics classrooms in Thailand and explores the effects of textbooks and other factors on student achievement gain. The results indicate that textbooks may affect achievement by substituting for additional postsecondary mathematics education of teachers and by delivering a more comprehensive curriculum.

The Center for Interracial Cooperation: A field experiment.

In a field experiment which contrasts two treatments for producing equal-status behavior in interracialgroups of early adolescents and pre-adolescents, it was hypothesized that Expectation Training, based on previous theoretical and laboratory work, would be more powerful than Learning Center, the alternative treatment. Effects of treatment were measured immediately after the intervention and again after three weeks of classroom experience with a cooperative curriculum. It was also hypothesized that the experience of social interaction in these specially structured classrooms would act to maintain the effects of the initial treatment. Results showed equal-status behavior in the students experiencing both treatments on the first measurement. The final measurement indicated some treatment differences, with a pattern of white dominance reappearing in the Female Learning Center. There was a tendency toward black-domination in Male Expectation Training in the long run. Test of the second hypothesis indicated that the classroom phase was associated with no significant changes in black initiation rates over time.

Enhancing Girls' Learning through Single-Sex Education: Evidence and a Policy Conundrum.

A key consideration in the policy debate on the appropriate role of single-sex education in predominantly coeducational school systems is relative benefit for male and female students. This paper analyzes the relative performance of single-sex education and coeducation in Thailand in enhancing eighth-grade male and female student scores on standardized mathematics tests, holding constant student background, peer, and school characteristics. Its main conclusions are that (a) single-sex schooling is more effective for female students and coeducational schooling is more effective for male students in improving student performance in mathematics and (b) these differentials are largely due to peer effects rather than to specific characteristics of single-sex and coeducational classrooms or schools.

Teaching quality and student achievement in Africa: The case of Nigeria and Swaziland

Abstract This paper uses ordinary regression and multi-level analytic techniques to examine the effects of schools, teachers, and teaching processes on enhancing grade 8 mathematics achievement in Nigeria and Swaziland. A significant proportion of variance in student achievement (24% in Nigeria and 16% in Swaziland) was attributable to between-classroom/school factors. School size, class size, and length of the school year had no effect on student achievement, but teaching processes were important in both countries. However, patterns of effects differed between the two countries, suggesting caution be taken in making generalizations about the nature of effective mixes of inputs.

Cross-Sex Collaborative Learning in Elementary Classrooms

Structured naturalistic observations, representing about 1,400 hours of classroom behavior, and student surveys were analyzed to determine: (a) the extent to which small group instruction was used in elementary school classrooms, (b) the academic conditions under which small group instruction was used, and (c) the effects of small group instruction on student attitudes and perceptions, particularly those related to gender stereotypes. In 29 fourth and fifth grade classrooms 23,590 observation records were collected; approximately 11% of the records indicated the use of instructional small groups, of which 8% were mixed-sex groups. Small groups were observed more often in physical education and reading classes and less often in art classes. The use of small groups was not related to gender stereotypes regarding student competence but was negatively related to more general gender stereotypes held by female students. Attitudes toward cross-sex cooperation were negatively related to cooperative groupings for both male and female students, although cross-sex peer ratings by females were positively related to cooperative groupings. Perceptions of oneself as a problem solver were positively associated with cooperative groupings for male students only. The results are discussed in relationship to the characterization of sex as a status characteristic influencing the dynamics of group interaction.

School Effects on Mathematics Achievement Gain in Thailand

This paper uses a multilevel approach to examine determinants of growth in grade 8 mathematics achievement in Thailand. Results of the analysis showed that schools in Thailand differed in their pretest-adjusted grade 8 mathematics scores, but there were no statistically significant differences in the relationship between pretest and posttest across schools. Schools and classrooms contributed 32% of the variance in posttest scores. Higher levels of achievement were associated with a higher proportion of teachers qualified to teach mathematics, an enriched curriculum and frequent use of textbooks by teachers. Individual characteristics contributed 68% of the variance, with achievement higher for boys, younger students, and children with higher educational aspirations, less perceived parental encouragement, higher self-perceptions of ability, greater interest in and perceived relevance of mathematics. The model developed in the paper was able to explain most of the between-school variance, but substantially less of the within-school variance. The implication of these results is that schools in Thailand are much more uniform in their effects than previous research in developing countries would have suggested.

Trends in Educational Computing: Decreasing Interest and the Changing Focus of Instruction.

This article presents a rationale for changing the current emphasis of precollege computer courses. It suggests that as an interim approach, to be used before computers are integrated effectively across the curriculum, computer courses deemphasize BASIC programming skills and instead focus on teaching applications software skills. The research evidence regarding the quality of computer literacy courses is reviewed, and the parallel cognitive and affective consequences of programming and applications software are discussed. The primary source of evidence regarding student interest in specific undergraduate majors comes from reports on college-bound seniors prepared for the College Board (College Board, 1983b, 1984, 1985). More than 800,000 high school seniors annually complete information regarding their intended college majors, choosing from a list of over 115 fields or specializations. Computer science was first listed as a possible major choice in 1974, with subcategories of systems analysis and data processing added in 1975. Between 1973 and 1983, interest in computer science rose dramatically. Less than 1% of high school seniors chose computer science as their intended major in 1974 (College Board, 1974), w ereas in 1983, more than 10% of high school seniors chose it (College Board, 1983b). In the next two years, however, interest in computer science took a sudden downward turn, with the level of interest in 1985 approximating that of 1981 (see Figure 1). This trend represents a decline of 27%, with womens interest decreasing 35% and mens interest 22%. No other intended major suffered such dramatic shifts during the same period of time. Although this rise and fall may simply reflect the fortunes of the computer industry in general, another explanation for this decline in interest also may be tenable. Students in the 1970s enrolled in untried and novel computer curricula. By 1985, due to their increased exposure to computers and computer literacy courses at elementary and secondary school levels, students had more information with which to evaluate computer science (Becker, 1983a, 1983c; Lockheed, 1985a). The increase in students taking precollege computer courses began around 1979. In 1980, 15% of elementary and 50% of secondary schools provided students access to microcomputers in their instructional programs (Goor, 1982); by 1985, 82% of elementary and 93% of secondary schools provided students access to computers (Becker, 1985). The most frequent use of microcomputers was for national, state, and locally mandated computer literacy courses (Boyer, 1983; College Board, 1983a; National Science Board Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 1983). In general, the mandates provide for required, not elective, computer course participation. It is the contention of the authors that the generally poor quality and restricted curriculum of these courses, which in 1985 were required for many high school seniors, accounts at least in part for the declining interest in computer science at the college level. Inadequate Computer Literacy Courses Early computer literacy courses, which stressed learning to program in BASIC, were generally of poor quality in terms of teacher training, course curSupport for the preparation of this paper was provided by Educational Testing Service. Marlaine E. Lockheed is a Sociologist in the Education and Training Department, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433. Her specializations are the sociology of education, education technology, and gender in education. Ellen B. Mandinach is Associate Research Scientist, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ 08541. Her special zations are individual differences and educational uses of microcomputers.

Information Technology and Education: Trends in Educational Computing: Decreasing Interest and the Changing Focus of Instruction

This article presents a rationale for changing the current emphasis of precollege computer courses. It suggests that as an interim approach, to be used before computers are integrated effectively across the curriculum, computer courses deemphasize BASIC programming skills and instead focus on teaching applications software skills. The research evidence regarding the quality of computer literacy courses is reviewed, and the parallel cognitive and affective consequences of programming and applications software are discussed.

The empty opportunity: Local control and secondary school achievement in the Philippines☆

Abstract This paper uses a multi-level model to examine: (a) the extent of differences in grade 9 mathematics and science achievement and attitudes among students in 214 national government, private, and local schools in the Philippines, (b) differences among these types of schools in terms of their social composition, resource availability, orderly environment, academic emphasis and school decision-making, and (c) the possible causes of achievement difference. With student socioeconomic status, age and gender held constant, significant differences were observed among students attending the three types of schools. Students in local schools had lower achievement and less positive attitudes than those in national government or private schools; students in private schools had higher achievement. These differences were largely due to student selection effects.