Martha Gilliam

Hygienic behaviour of honey bees and its application for control of brood diseases and varroa: Part II. Studies on hygienic behaviour since the Rothenbuhler era

Part I of this review summarized the initial research on hygienic behaviour of honey bees, Apis mellifera. This early work that concerned hygienic behaviour as a mechanism of resistance to American foulbrood (AFB) has been the foundation for all subsequent research on hygienic behaviour. In Part II, research on hygienic behaviour in relation to other bee diseases and to Varroa jacobsoni and in Apis species and subspecies is reviewed. In addition, techniques to screen bee colonies for the behaviour are detailed, and practical applications of breeding bees for hygienic behaviour are given. A section on neuroethology demonstrates how modern neurobiological techniques are being used to detect the reasons for differences in responses of hygienic and non-hygienic bees to abnormal brood.

Hygienic behaviour of honey bees and its application for control of brood diseases and varroa: Part I. Hygienic behaviour and resistance to American foulbrood

There have been very few studies on hygienic behaviour as a mechanism of resistance to American foulbrood since Park, Woodrow, Rothenbuhler, and Rothenbuhlers students published their seminal work...

Factors affecting development of chalkbrood disease in colonies of honey bees, Apis mellifera, fed pollen contaminated with Ascosphaera apis☆

Abstract Using improved methods, colonies of honey bees, Apis mellifera, selected and bred for resistance and for susceptibility to chalkbrood disease caused by the fungus, Ascosphaera apis, were inoculated with the pathogen in pollen patties. Good hygienic behavior, defined as uncapping and removal of freeze-killed sealed brood by worker bees, was correlated with resistance to the disease in most of the test colonies. Resistant colonies had fewer hive substrates contaminated with the pathogen than susceptible colonies. Most bee bread (stored pollen) samples from susceptible colonies contained the pathogen, but few from resistant colonies did. Bee bread and guts of nurse bees were the major sources of the pathogen in susceptible colonies. A higher percentage of bee bread samples from resistant colonies contained yeasts and molds other than A. apis. Tests of bees, brood, bee bread, and honey for antimycotic substances active against A. apis revealed that microorganisms, primarily molds, produced inhibitory substances. Most of these organisms were isolated from bee bread. The largest zones of inhibition were produced by Rhizopus sp. and unidentified Mucorales. These organisms may have been introduced by the bees.

Yeasts isolated from honey bees, Apis mellifera, fed 2,4-D and antibiotics.

Abstract Yeasts belonging to seven species were isolated and identified from the intestines of 388 adult worker honey bees, Apis mellifera. Torulopsis magnoliae, Candida parapsilosis, and Torulopsis grabrata were found in bee guts most frequently. The intestines of bees from colonies fed a combination of Terramycin and Fumidil B contained few or no yeasts. More guts of bees from colonies fed 2,4-D contained yeasts than those examined from bees from control colonies.

Microbiology of feces of the larval honey bee, Apis mellifera☆

Abstract Methods for collection and microbiological examination of feces of larval honey bees, Apis mellifera , are described. Feces collected on sterile agar were inoculated onto selective media, some of which were acidified to approximate more closely the p H of larval food and the larval gut. A total of 104 microbial isolates were obtained from fecal collections of 20 larvae, although the feces of 4 of these larvae contained no detectable microbes. Microorganisms isolated in order of frequency were Bacillus spp., Gram-variable pleomorphic bacteria ( Achromobacter eurydice? ), molds (primarily Penicillia), actinomycetes, Gram-negative bacterial rods, and yeasts. It appears that larvae can become inoculated with microorganisms which are found in adult bees and pollen from ingestion of contaminated food. However, evidence for a constant symbiotic microflora which could contribute significant amounts of biochemicals to larvae is lacking.

Ultrastructure of the ventriculus of the honey bee, Apis mellifera (L.): cytochemical localization of acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, and nonspecific esterase.

SummaryVentriculi (midguts) from 5-day- and 30-day-old honey bees, Apis mellifera (L.), were examined ultrastructurally and cytochemically. Midgut epithelia were composed of regenerative cells, endocrine cells, and pleomorphic columnar cells. Regions of the midgut were encountered in which the cytogeny of the columnar cells, the content of discharged vesicles, and the structure of the peritrophic membrane varied. In 5-day-old bees, regional variation in the ultrastructure of the cells indicated that absorption occurred primarily in the middle of the gut and that regulated enzyme secretion appeared to be confined to the posterior midgut. In 30-day-old bees, reduced pollen consumption was accompanied by diminished cell activity in the posterior midgut. Our ultrastructural data suggest that the honey bee, like other insects, may rely on countercurrent flow to distribute enzymes and nutrients efficiently throughout the ectoperitrophic and endoperitrophic compartments. Acid phosphatase and nonspecific esterase activity were localized cytochemically in primary and secondary lysosomes. Alkaline phosphatase activity was localized on the elongate microvilli of the striated border and within large electron-lucent microbodies. The association of alkaline phosphatase activity with the peroxisomal microbodies and their relation to phospholipid metabolism are discussed.

The mycoflora of adult worker honeybees, Apis mellifera: Effects of 2,4,5-T and caging of bee colonies☆

Abstract The guts of 195 adult worker honeybees, Apis mellifera , from free-flying control colonies fed sucrose, from caged control colonies fed sucrose, from free-flying colonies fed 2,4,5-T, and from caged colonies fed 2,4,5-T were examined for yeasts and molds. Only 25% of the bee guts contained fungi. Torulopsis magnoliae, T. glabrata, Hansenula anomala, Penicillium cyclopium , and P. cyclopium var. echinulatum were the most frequent isolates. Molds were most prevalent in bees from free-flying control colonies fed sucrose, and yeasts were found most often in bees from caged colonies fed 2,4,5-T.

In vitro phagocytosis of Nosema apis spores by honey-bee hemocytes

Abstract Phagocytozed Nosema apis spores caused hemocytes of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, to rupture. This phenomenon may be responsible for the weakened state and the ensuing death of the insect.

Microbes from apiarian sources: Bacillus spp. in frass of the greater wax moth.

Abstract Frass from the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella , obtained from feral colonies of honey bees, Apis mellifera ; from managed honey bee colonies; and from a laboratory culture of the wax moth was sampled for aerobic Gram-positive spore-forming rods. One hundred eighty-five strains belonging to the genus Bacillus were isolated, and most were identified. One hundred and three of the isolates were from frass from the wax moth culture, 61 were from frass from managed honey bee colonies, and 21 were from frass from feral honey bee colonies. The species most frequently isolated varied with the source. Fifty-eight isolates from frass from managed honey bee colonies were B. cereus which was isolated from this source only, but B. sphaericus was the most frequent isolate from frass from the wax moth culture. Bacillus megaterium and organisms belonging to the B. alvei-B. thiaminolyticus spectrum were the most frequent isolates from frass from feral honey bee colonies. Most strains isolated produced caprylate esterase-lipase, leucine aminopeptidase, and phosphoamidase. The numbers of isolates, the species, and the enzymatic activity of the strains varied with the source of the frass. In fact, the complete microbial complement varied with the source. These results are discussed in relation to possible roles of Bacillus spp. in the nutrition of the wax moth as well as the microbial ecology of the honey bee colony.

Amino Acids in Pollens and Nectars of Citrus Cultivars and in Stored Pollen and Honey from Honeybee Colonies in Citrus Groves

SummaryTotal amino acids and crude protein levels were analysed in pollens from flowers of nine citrus cultivare, and in stored pollen from three honeybee colonies in citrus groves. Free amino acids were determined in the nectars from six cultivars and in three citrus honeys. Although the protein levels of pollens from different cultivars ranged from 6middot;2% to 20·7%, the percentage of individual amino acids was relatively constant. Aspartic acid and glutamic acid were the predominant amino acids in the pollen from flowers. Stored pollen contained 17·1 % to 22·6% protein, and higher amounts of proline than flower pollen.Nectars contained 7·5 to 79·1 mg/100 g of amino acids. Wide variation was observed both in the numbers and in the levels of amino acids in the nectars. In nectars in which they were found, proline and serine were the predominant amino acids. In contrast, the kinds and amounts of amino acids were fairly constant in the honey samples, proline being the major one. Unlike most plants, Citru...