Martha J. Coutinho

Ethnic Representation in Special Education The Influence of School-Related Economic and Demographic Variables

The purpose of this study was to provide current information on the representation of African American students as mildly mentally retarded (MMR) and seriously emotionally disturbed (SED) and to describe the influence of economic, demographic, and educational variables on the identification of minority students for special education. The sample consisted of the districts selected for the Fall 1992 Elementary and Secondary School Civil Rights Compliance Report survey. Odds ratios were constructed for MMR and SED to describe the nature and extent of disproportionate representation. Regression models were tested to investigate the influence of a set of school-related demographic and fiscal variables on disproportionate representation. Results indicated that African American students were about 2.4 times more likely to be identified as MMR and about 1.5 times more likely to be identified as SED than their non-African American peers. Economic and demographic variables were significant predictors of disproportionate representation but influenced identification of students as MMR and SED in different ways. Implications for research are discussed.

Disproportionate Representation in Special Education: A Synthesis and Recommendations

Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education remains a very controversial, unresolved issue. This synthesis summarizes historical perspectives and current knowledge about disproportionate representation with respect to: (a) definitions of disproportionate representation and related issues of interpretation; (b) national and state-level estimates of disproportionality for four ethnic groups; (c) legal, policy, research and teacher education responses to disproportionality; and (d) hypothesized causes and predictors of disproportionality. Authors stress the need for: coherent and well-articulated conceptual frameworks, responsible use and representation of data, research dialog that is informed by appreciation of the complex sociopolitical history and current context, and the need for effective advocacy to improve the educational success of minority students.

The Influence of Sociodemographics and Gender on the Disproportionate Identification of Minority Students as Having Learning Disabilities

The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent of gender and race/ethnicity disproportionality among students identified as having learning disabilities (LD) and to investigate relationships between disproportionality and sociodemographic factors. Using nationally representative data collected by the U.S. Office for Civil Rights, this study examined the effects of gender, ethnicity, and sociodemographic factors on the proportion of students who are identified as having LD. Results indicated a clear association between ethnicity and gender and the odds of being identified as a student with LD. Sociodemographic factors for a school district were also found to be strongly associated with the proportion of students identified as having LD. A logistic regression model that included the nine sociodemographic variables, gender, and race, was significantly better at predicting LD identification than a model that included sociodemographic predictors alone. Adjusted odds ratios illustrated how the likelihood of identifying LD changes when sociodemographic influences are taken into account. Findings indicated that both individual student characteristics and district sociodemographic characteristics are important in determining the likelihood of LD identification and that the impact of the sociodemographic characteristics is different for each of the gender-ethnicity groups.

State Variation in Gender Disproportionality in Special Education Findings and Recommendations

Gender disproportionality in special education has been apparent for many years, reflected in male-to-female ratios that range from about 1.5:1 to 3.5:1. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent of disproportionate representation for the disability conditions of learning disability (LD), serious emotional disturbance (SED), and mental retardation (MR) at the state, regional, and national levels. Using data collected by the U.S. Office for Civil Rights, we examined the hypothesis that current variations across states in gender disproportionality should be small, and similar to rates for the nation as a whole. Substantial variations in state rates for students with LD and SED were observed. We also examined the hypothesis that states serving relatively fewer students for a given disability are likely to have greater male overrepresentation. This hypothesis was generally supported for students with LD but not for students with MR or SED. We examined factors related to state policies for students with MR and SED that might help to account for these findings. We conclude with recommendations for research to better understand the basis for gender disproportionality and with several practical implications for policy review and response related to gender disproportionality at the regional, state, and national levels.

Trends in the Special Education Identification Rates of Boys and Girls: A Call for Research and Change

Female underrepresentation in special education is now of significant concern to educators. The purpose of this study was to present nationally representative information about the extent of disproportionate representation for the disability conditions of learning disabilities, mental retardation, and emotional disturbance. Using data collected by the U.S. Office for Civil Rights, national trends are reported in gender disproportion between 1980-1997. Recommendations are made for carefully designed empirical research to elucidate the basis for differences, improved data collection and reporting by gender, and changes in practice.

Gender and Sociodemographic Factors and the Disproportionate Identification of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with Emotional Disturbance

The purpose of this study was to investigate gender and ethnicity disproportionality among students identified as having emotional disturbance (ED) and relationships between identification and sociodemographic factors. School districts’ sociodemographic characteristics were found to be strongly associated with the proportion of students identified as having ED. Results also indicated a clear association between ethnicity/gender and the likelihood of being identified as having ED, even after sociodemographic effects were accounted for. Adjusted odds ratios illustrated how the likelihood of identification for gender/ethnicity groups changed when sociodemographic effects were taken into account. The nature and direction of the relationship with identification rates were further explored for two of the sociodemographic variables. Policy and research recommendations are provided in the context of the critical need to improve identification and services for students with ED.

Impact of Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Identification Rates of Minority Students as Having Mental Retardation

Ethnic disproportionality among students with mental retardation and relationships between disproportionality and sociodemographic factors were investigated. Using national data, we examined the effects of gender, ethnicity, and sociodemographic factors on the proportion of students identified as having mental retardation. Results indicate a clear association among ethnicity, gender, and mental retardation. Sociodemographic variables were also strongly associated with the proportion of students identified. A logistic regression model that included sociodemographic predictors was significantly better than models with gender and race alone. Findings indicate that both individual student characteristics and district sociodemographic characteristics were important in determining the likelihood of identification of mental retardation and that the impact of the sociodemographic characteristics is different for each gender/ethnicity group. Recommendations for future research are provided.

Ethnicity and Special Education Research: Identifying Questions and Methods.

This article presents questions, offers ideas, and solicits input regarding hypotheses and methodologies needed to extend our understanding of the ethnic representation of students identified as having serious emotional disturbance (SED). Technical methods are discussed to ensure that estimates of the extent of disproportionate representation are accurate, technically defensible, and interpretable for purposes of further research and policy decisions. Research questions and analyses needed to produce a better conceptual understanding of why disproportionality occurs are explored. Societal issues are described that influence definitions, methods, and interpretations and will continue to influence capacity to respond to the problem of disproportionate ethnic representation of students with SED.

The Effectiveness of Word Processor Spell Checker Programs To Produce Target Words for Misspellings Generated by Students with Learning Disabilities.

This study investigated spell check programs to determine how they differ in producing target words in first position in the replacement list for misspellings generated by students with learning disabilities. A pool of 1,008 misspellings taken from 111 writing samples generated by students with learning disabilities, grades three through eight, were spell checked by the spell check function of nine word processing software programs. Misspellings were classified by the level of phonetic mismatch to the target word (phonetic error level) and the proportion of correct two-letter sequences (bigram ratio). A significant difference was found among spell checkers in their ability to produce target words first in the replacement list. In addition, a significant difference with respect to phonetic error level and bigram ratio was found. Efficiency of spell checkers increased as the phonetic error level or the bigram ratio of the misspellings increased. These results suggest that spell checkers are overall ineffective in producing target words first in the replacement list for misspellings generated by students with learning disabilities.

Differences in Outcomes for Female and Male Students in Special Education

Interest in differences in outcomes for male and female students in special education has increased in recent years. Using the nationally representative, longitudinal National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS-88) data set, a logistic regression model was used to examine the extent to which outcome variables were differentially associated with gender for students participating in special education. Evidence was obtained for several differential effects, with most results favoring males. Among other findings, females as compared to males with disabilities were less likely to obtain a high school diploma, were less likely to be employed, earned less, and were more likely to be a biological parent. Recommendations are provided for improved transition services, the implementation of promising practices related to self-determination, and renewed emphasis on comprehensive and flexible life—career preparation to foster better outcomes among females with disabilities.