Martha Teghtsoonian

Range and regression effects in magnitude scaling

The relation between power law exponents obtained by magnitude estimation and magnitude production was studied for both loudness and perceived distance. While the results confirm the usual finding of higher values for production for relatively large stimulus ranges, just the opposite occurs when the stimulus range is short, necessitating a revision of the Stevens-Greenbaum regression principle. The relation between range and exponent was explored, both for the case in which several intensities are presented for judgment and for the simpler case of only two intensities. In both cases, a power relation was described relating stimulus ratios to judgmental ratios, with exponents containing both range-dependent and range-independent components.

Scaling apparent distance in a natural outdoor setting

Judgments of apparent distance in outdoor settings are power functions of physical distance, just as they have been shown to be in indoor settings. But the exponents obtained out of doors are not only appreciably lower—all less than 1.00—but are affected by range: the exponent is largest for the smallest ratio of extreme distances.

How repeatable are Stevens’s power law exponents for individual subjects?

Magnitude estimations of apparent length and apparent area were obtained for the same group of Ss over successive experimental sessions. Session-to-session correlations between individual exponents on a given continuum were positive and reliable for successive 24-h intersession intervals, but were not significant for a 1-year interval. In a second experiment on judgments of apparent area, when each stimulus was judged only once per session, the session-to-session correlation was reliable only when the intersession interval was zero. Six other intervals, ranging from 1 to 77 days, yielded nonsignificant correlations. When the constraints exerted by repeated judging are removed, the location of S’s exponent in a distribution of exponents is stable only for brief intervals. Thus the differences among exponents cannot reflect any persisting attributes of Ss’ sensory or judgmental processes.

Consistency of individual exponents in cross-modal matching

An important question about individual differences in the exponent of the psychophysical power law is how they should be interpreted. The differences may reflect permanent characteristics of individuals, and it has been argued that, if this is so, the range of these differences is so great as to identify the class of data as exceptional among the physical and biological sciences. Cited as evidence of such permanence has been the correlation between individual exponents obtained on two separate occasions. In a previous paper, we showed that increasing the time interval between occasions reduced the correlation to a nonsignificant level; we argued, therefore, that obtained individual differences in exponents, even though large, depended upon the operation of factors only incidentally associated with the particular observer. In a series of new studies of session-to-session correlation between individual exponents, we provide evidence that: (1) our original finding for magnitude estimates of visual size is repeatable, with the correlation dropping to nearly zero after 1 week; (2) when judged line length is matched to brightness, a delay of I week is sufficient to produce a nonsignificant correlation; (3) in contrast, magnitude estimates of loudness yield significant correlations after a week’s delay; (4) but, when moduli are arbitrarily changed between sessions by the experimenter, these correlations for magnitude estimates of loudness drop to a nonsignificant level, even for a zero-delay condition. We conclude that, whereas in some scaling tasks the passage of time alone between sessions is sufficient to disrupt what appears to be the mnemonic basis for session-to-session correlation, in other (less familiar) tasks, more positive interference (in the form of a modulus change) is needed to achieve the same end. The evidence is consistent with the belief that enduring characteristics of the observer contribute only a small portion of the variability in individual power law exponents.

Two varieties of perceived length

The perception of length depends on the mode of stimulation. When Ss were asked to judge the apparent lengths of blocks presented either visually or proprioceptively (between thumb and finger of one hand), visual length was proportional to block length, whereas proprioceptive length was an accelerating function of block length. When both visual and proprioceptive stimulation occurred simultaneously (S both saw and felt a block), the visual input was preemptive.

Scaling apparent distance in natural indoor settings

Apparent distance was scaled by the method of magnitude estimation in two indoor viewing situations. The average exponent of a power function relating judged to real distance was 1.2; the exponent was not affected by a doubling of the distance range. Individual judgments were well described by power functions. The results are consistent with those of other studies in showing that apparent distance is an accelerating function of physical distance in indoor settings.

Seen and felt length

Apparent length of rods was scaled by a method of magnitude estimation. Observers judged the rods on two occasions, once presented visually and again kines-thetically. Length seen and length felt are both related to physical length by a power function with an exponent of unity.

On the relation between the growth of loudness and the discrimination of intensity for pure tones.

The intensity jnd is often assumed to depend on the slope of the loudness function. One way to test this assumption is to measure the jnd for a sound that falls on distinctly different loudness functions. Two such functions were generated by presenting a 1000-Hz tone in narrow-band noise (925-1080 Hz) set at 70 dB SPL and in wideband noise (75-9600 Hz) set at 80 dB SPL. Over a range from near threshold to about 75 dB SPL, the loudness function for the tone is much steeper in the narrow-band noise than in the wideband noise. At 72 dB SPL, where the two loudness curves cross, the tones jnd was measured in each noise by a block up-down two-interval forced-choice procedure. Despite the differences in slope (and in sensation level), the jnd (delta I/I) is nearly the same in the two noises, 0.22 in narrow-band noise and 0.20 in wideband noise. The mean value of 0.21 is close to the value of 0.25 interpolated from Jesteadt et al. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 61, 169-176 (1977)] for a 1000-Hz tone that had the same loudness in quiet as did our 72-dB tone in noise, but lay on a loudness function with a much lower slope. These and other data demonstrate that intensity discrimination for pure tones is unrelated to the slope of the loudness function.

Invariance of odor strength with sniff vigor: an olfactory analogue to size constancy.

Previous evidence has shown that detection threshold in humans and olfactory neural discharge rate in animal preparations both depend on flow rate of odorous vapor. But no data have been reported that show the effects of flow rate in humans on perceived odor strength at suprathreshold intensities. Subjects learned to inspire at two flow rates, one twice as great as the other, by adjusting (on a cathode ray tube) the transduced trace of a sniff-produced pressure change to match either of two target contours. They then made magnitude estimations of odor strength, while producing either weak or strong sniffs, for odorants presented over a wide range of concentrations via a specially designed sniff-bottle system. The odorant, diluted in diethyl phthalate, was n-butanol in two experiments and n-amyl acetate in two others. Subject-controlled flow rate had no effect on odor strength for either odorant. There was an apparent contradiction between these data and those on neural discharge rate that may, however, be resolved by adopting an odor constancy model: When sniff intensity varies during the olfactory exploration of an odor source, information about the rate at which odorant molecules are established at the receptor site is combined with information about sniff vigor so that the resulting percept is of invariant odor strength.

The effects of binocular and motion-generated information on the perception of depth and height

The perception of distance and size in the presence of optical gradient information was investigated under four viewing conditions—binocular view with and without head motion, and monocular view with and without head motion. Subjects (60 adults) matched distance intervals (from 15 to 127 cm) and heights of a target triangle (from 5 to 15 cm) by adjusting the length of a metal tape. Both linear and power functions were fitted to each individual’s distance judgments, and the competing perceptual models were compared. For both models, it was found that binocular information was sufficient to specify relative, but not absolute, distance, that monocular information was sufficient to specify an orderly relation between target distance and judgment but not absolute distance, that average error was less in the binocular conditions, and that perceived distance was not affected in either condition by the addition of head motion. The analysis of size judgments revealed that monocular and binocular judgments did not differ, that matches made with and without head motion did not differ, and that, in all conditions, matches exceeded target heights by an average 30% to 40%. Judged size was also analyzed as a function of target distance. In all conditions but monocular view with head motion, the effect of distance was to increase size judgments. The distance judgments support the hypothesis (Purdy, 1958) that the binocular stimulus carries information that the monocular stimulus does not; they fail to support the hypothesis (Gibson, 1966) that observer motion adds information to the static stimulus. The size judgments support neither hypothesis but suggest an independence of perceived size from perceived distance.