Marthie Kemp

Unconventional oil and gas extraction in South Africa: water linkages within the population–environment–development nexus and its policy implications

ABSTRACT The development of unconventional oil and gas resources, controversial in many countries, is currently being pursued by the South African government. This activity can have large impacts on the socio-economic and biophysical environments, especially water resources. In South Africa, little consideration has been given to water-related impacts from the perspective of the interrelated people–ecosystem linkages that are necessary for sustainable social and economic development. This article explores specific water-related linkages between facets of the natural and social environments pertaining to unconventional oil and gas extraction, with the objective of achieving more effective water resources management and water policy development.

A review of biophysical and socio-economic effects of unconventional oil and gas extraction - implications for South Africa

The impacts associated with unconventional oil and gas (UOG) extraction will be cumulative in nature and will most likely occur on a regional scale, highlighting the importance of using strategic decision-making and management tools. Managing possible impacts responsibly is extremely important in a water scarce country such as South Africa, versus countries where more water may be available for UOG extraction activities. This review article explains the possible biophysical and socio-economic impacts associated with UOG extraction within the South African context and how these complex impacts interlink. Relevant policy and governance frameworks to manage these impacts are also highlighted.

Assessing the existing knowledge base and opinions of decision makers on the regulation and monitoring of unconventional gas mining in South Africa

A policy vacuum exists in relation to the exploration and mining of unconventional gas in South Africa, with a recent survey showing that 86% of the respondents did not know what hydraulic fracturing entails. We conducted a study to determine the opinion of decision makers involved in formulating policy and regulating mining activities related to shale gas mining in South Africa, as this was not covered in the aforementioned survey. Our results demonstrate that the regulation of shale gas mining in South Africa is viewed as extremely important and identifies possible regulatory and monitoring tools to assist in governing this activity.

Vulnerability mapping as a tool to manage the environmental impacts of oil and gas extraction

Various biophysical and socio-economic impacts may be associated with unconventional oil and gas (UOG) extraction. A vulnerability map may assist governments during environmental assessments, spatial planning and the regulation of UOG extraction, as well as decision-making around UOG extraction in fragile areas. A regional interactive vulnerability map was developed for UOG extraction in South Africa. This map covers groundwater, surface water, vegetation, socio-economics and seismicity as mapping themes, based on impacts that may emanate from UOG extraction. The mapping themes were developed using a normative approach, where expert input during the identification and classification of vulnerability indicators may increase the acceptability of the resultant map. This article describes the development of the interactive vulnerability map for South Africa, where UOG extraction is not yet allowed and where regulations are still being developed to manage this activity. The importance and policy implications of using vulnerability maps for managing UOG extraction impacts in countries where UOG extraction is planned are highlighted in this article.

Intra-annual variation of arthropod-plant interactions and arthropod trophic structure in an endangered grassland in the Free State province, South Africa

Arthropods are valuable biological indicators owing to strong relationships with primary producers. The supposition that arthropod-plant interactions are constant over seasons was tested using Mantel tests on correlations between these groups. A total of 78 plant species and 108 arthropod families were sampled monthly from the endangered Bloemfontein Dry Grassland at the Free State National Botanical Gardens between April 2009 and March 2010. Interaction strengths between plants and arthropods varied within a calendar year; being strongest in winter months (July and August), initiation of the growth season (November) and peak growth season (February and March). It was hypothesised that variation was caused by changing primary productivity. The trophic composition of the arthropod community supported this hypothesis as the ratio between primary consumers (herbivores) and secondary consumers (predators and parasitoids) showed patterns that coincided with periods of strong arthropod-plant interactions. Patterns were explained by multiple theories linking plant and arthropod diversity. It was concluded that arthropod assemblages are closely linked to primary producers, the abiotic environment and top-down trophic forces at different times of the year. Future arthropod-based studies should be performed with clear objectives and seasonal benchmark conditions to overcome these variations.