Martin Heesacker

Sex Differences in Emotion A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Counseling Psychology

This article examines the findings of several reviews of the empirical literature on biological sex and emotion, focusing on the degree to which perceived sex differences in emotionality are, and in most cases are not, supported while at the same time addressing the implications this body of research has for counseling psychologists. This article also explores potential explanations, such as gender role socialization or situational influences, for the profession’s continued acceptance of large innate sex-based affective differences. Finally, the third section discusses several concerns this continued acceptance raises for the practice of counseling, whereas the last section offers a research agenda building on the review presented herein.

Changing the sexual aggression-supportive attitudes of men : a psychoeducational intervention

Because specific, identifiable attitudes of men have been associated with sexual aggression toward women, this study was undertaken to assess a psychoeducational intervention to change these attitudes and, thus, to help prevent sexual aggression. This intervention, based on the most widely researched current model of attitude change, Petty and Cacioppos (1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM), was evaluated for its impact on sexual aggression-supportive attitudes of college men

Confirming Gender Stereotypes: A Social Role Perspective

In this research we examined whether emotional vulnerability leads women and men to confirm gender stereotypes. Emotional vulnerability is a state where one is open to having ones feelings hurt or to experiencing rejection. Drawing on the tenets of social role theory and research related to normative expectations, we propose that emotional vulnerability leads to stereotype confirmation, as normative expectations are less risky and easier to enact than nonnormative behavior. Fifty-nine dating couples were randomly assigned to a high emotional vulnerability or low emotional vulnerability discussion with their partners. When the degree of emotional vulnerability was high men confirmed gender-stereotypes. Womens behavior, on the other hand, was not significantly affected by condition. We discuss these findings in terms of the domain in which gender-typed behaviors occur and the social pressures to act in accordance with gender norms.

Gender-Based Emotional Stereotyping.

Previous research documents that mental health professionals attitudes reflect the general publics stereotype of women as hyperemotional. This article reports the results of 6 studies exploring the existence of a complementary stereotype of men as hypoemotional. As predicted, counselors and college students consistently stereotyped men as hypoemotional (all ps <.01). Data from these studies also suggest that this stereotype of men as hypoemotional is associated with biased counseling-relevant judgments. For example, people holding hypoemotional stereotypes of men were most likely to blame the husband, as opposed to the wife, for a heterosexual married couples difficulties (p <.01). The implications of this stereotype for counseling, as well as areas for future research, are discussed.

The Influence of Sexually Violent Rap Music on Attitudes of Men with Little Prior Exposure

This article is among the first to focus on commercially available, sexually violent rap music, so-called “gangsta” rap (GR) and its influence on attitudes toward women. Collegiate males with little experience with GR were exposed to GR music, lyrics, both, or neither. Thus the effect of GR music and lyrics were isolated from each other and from acculturation to GR. Collapsing across all attitude measures, neither lyrics alone nor lyrics with music resulted in significantly more negative attitudes toward women than music-only or no-treatment control conditions. Participants in the lyrics conditions had significantly greater adversarial sexual beliefs than no-lyrics participants, however.

Model Training Program in Counseling Psychology

In response to the revision of the American Psychological Associations Guidelines and Principles of Accreditation, the Council of Counseling Psychology Training Programs (CCPTP) and Division 17formed a Joint Writing Committee to create a document that would present a modal or normative training program for counseling psychology. This article presents the Model Training Program, as endorsed by CCPTP and Division 17.

Masculinity ideology among Russian and U.S. young men and women and its relationships to unhealthy lifestyles habits among young Russian men.

One aim of this study was to further investigate the empirical support for the social constructionist perspective on gender roles. A 2nd aim was to explore the relationship between Russian men’s endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology and their engagement in behaviors that may put their health at risk. Russian respondents endorsed traditional masculinity ideology, developed for a U.S. sample, to a higher degree than did their American counterparts. Overall, women endorsed a less traditional perspective of masculinity ideology for men; however, this result was more pronounced among U.S. participants. Using a modification of the Susceptibility to Stress Scale (L. H. Miller, A. D. Smith, & B. L. Mehler, 1988), results yielded 1 variable associated with unhealthy lifestyle habits among Russian men: lower socioeconomic status.

Dating relationships and the demand/withdraw pattern of communication

This study examines whether afemale-demand/male-withdraw pattern occurs in datingrelationships and whether this response increases duringdiscussions of difficult topics. One hundred and eightindividuals (women = 60, men = 48) currently in a datingrelationship completed the Communication PatternsQuestionnaire, Short Form (CPQSF) regarding either adifficult or nondifficult discussion. The racialcomposition of the undergraduate student population at thetime the study was conducted was 68.8% Caucasian, 8.9%Hispanic, 8.9% International, 6.0% African American,5.6% Asian American, and 1.8% Native American (data on socioeconomic status were unavailable).Results show that dating couples do employ apredominantly female-demand/male-withdraw pattern, whichincreases in response to difficult discussions. However, this study also found that many dating couplesemployed male-demand/female-withdraw or equaldemand/withdraw patterns. Post hoc tests also showedthat couples exhibiting eitherfemale-demand/male-withdraw or male-demand/female-withdraw patterns weremore ingrained in specific negative behavior patterns,employed more demand/withdraw behaviors, and exhibitedless positive behaviors than couples with an equal demand/withdraw pattern.

Individual Counseling and Psychotherapy Applications from the Social Psychology of Attitude Change

This article provides a new conceptualization of the literature on the application of the elaboration likelihood model of attitude change (ELM) to counseling, identifying two waves of this work: (a) early application studies that were essentially parametric extensions of well-established basic laboratory paradigms and (b) later studies that reflect less strong adherence to basic research paradigms and more sensitivity to the counseling context. In the second wave, the focus shifted away from laboratory paradigms, toward important issues in counseling, such as enhancing the effectiveness of assertion training and evaluating the validity of peoples assessment responses. Results from the second wave provide clearer support for the utility of the ELM than first-wave studies. This article also identifies important methodological differences between the two waves, discusses relevant recent advances, and provides a list of practice-relevant conclusions from this literature and a future research agenda.

The elaboration likelihood model: Implications for the practice of school psychology

Abstract Understanding the formation and change of attitudes is important to the practice of school psychology. We review a contemporary theory of attitude change, the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion (ELM, Petty & Cacioppo, 1981, 1986), and address its relevance to school psychology. The ELM provides an integrative framework for understanding the antecedents and consequences of attitude change and specifies the various processes by which source, message, recipient, channel, and context variables have an impact on attitudes. A key postulate in the ELM is that attitude change can result from relatively thoughtful (central route) or nonthoughtful (peripheral route) processes. The ELM also holds that the more thoughtful the change, the more likely the new attitude is to persist, resist counterpersuasion, and influence behavior. Illustrations of the utility of the ELM for school psychology are presented along with some caveats and research suggestions.