Martin L. Kirk

Pyranopterin conformation defines the function of molybdenum and tungsten enzymes

We have analyzed the conformations of 319 pyranopterins in 102 protein structures of mononuclear molybdenum and tungsten enzymes. These span a continuum between geometries anticipated for quinonoid dihydro, tetrahydro, and dihydro oxidation states. We demonstrate that pyranopterin conformation is correlated with the protein folds defining the three major mononuclear molybdenum and tungsten enzyme families, and that binding-site micro-tuning controls pyranopterin oxidation state. Enzymes belonging to the bacterial dimethyl sulfoxide reductase (DMSOR) family contain a metal-bis-pyranopterin cofactor, the two pyranopterins of which have distinct conformations, with one similar to the predicted tetrahydro form, and the other similar to the predicted dihydro form. Enzymes containing a single pyranopterin belong to either the xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) or sulfite oxidase (SUOX) families, and these have pyranopterin conformations similar to those predicted for tetrahydro and dihydro forms, respectively. This work provides keen insight into the roles of pyranopterin conformation and oxidation state in catalysis, redox potential modulation of the metal site, and catalytic function.

Single molecule magnet behavior of a pentanuclear Mn-based metallacrown complex: solid state and solution magnetic studies.

The magnetic behavior of the pentanuclear complex of formula Mn(II)(O(2)CCH(3))(2)[12-MC(Mn(III)(N)shi)-4](DMF)(6), 1, was investigated using magnetization and magnetic susceptibility measurements both in the solid state and in solution. Complex 1 has a nearly planar structure, made of a central Mn(II) ion surrounded by four peripheral Mn(III) ions. Solid state variable-field dc magnetic susceptibility experiments demonstrate that 1 possesses a low value for the total spin in the ground state; fitting appropriate expressions to the data results in antiferromangetic coupling both between the peripheral Mn(III) ions (J = -6.3 cm(-1)) and between the central Mn(II) ion and the Mn(III) ones (J = -4.2 cm(-1)). In order to obtain a reasonable fit, a relatively large single ion magnetic anisotropy (D) value of 1 cm(-1) was necessary for the central Mn(II) ion. The single crystal magnetization measurements using a microsquid array display a very slight opening of the hysteresis loop but only at a very low temperature (0.04 K), which is in line with the ac susceptibility data where a slow relaxation of the magnetization occurs just around 2 K. In frozen solution, complex 1 displays a frequency dependent ac magnetic susceptibility signal with an energy barrier to magnetization reorientation (E) and relaxation time at an infinite temperature (τ(o)) of 14.7 cm(-1) and 1.4 × 10(-7) s, respectively, demonstrating the single molecule magnetic behavior in solution.

Recent applications of MCD spectroscopy to metalloenzymes

Magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) continues to be a powerful probe of metalloenzyme electronic and geometric structure, in addition to playing a major role in the determination of heme enzyme coordination geometries. Excited state electronic structure contributions to enzyme activity have been gleaned from C-term MCD studies, which are usually interpreted in the context of other spectroscopies, including electronic absorption and resonance Raman. The recent development of sophisticated methods for the analysis of variable-temperature, variable-field MCD have allowed the ground states of metalloenzyme active sites to be studied in detail, providing information on the electronic and geometric structure of the site. This has been especially informative for non-heme iron enzymes. In the past two years X-ray MCD has been shown to be a promising technique for the study of metalloenzymes.

Superexchange Contributions to Distance Dependence of Electron Transfer/Transport: Exchange and Electronic Coupling in Oligo(para-Phenylene)- and Oligo(2,5-Thiophene)-Bridged Donor–Bridge–Acceptor Biradical Complexes

The preparation and characterization of three new donor-bridge-acceptor biradical complexes are described. Using variable-temperature magnetic susceptibility, EPR hyperfine coupling constants, and the results of X-ray crystal structures, we evaluate both exchange and electronic couplings as a function of bridge length for two quintessential molecular bridges: oligo(para-phenylene), β = 0.39 Å(-1) and oligo(2,5-thiophene), β = 0.22 Å(-1). This report represents the first direct comparison of exchange/electronic couplings and distance attenuation parameters (β) for these bridges. The work provides a direct measurement of superexchange contributions to β, with no contribution from incoherent hopping. The different β values determined for oligo(para-phenylene) and oligo(2,5-thiophene) are due primarily to the D-B energy gap, Δ, rather than bridge-bridge electronic couplings, H(BB). This is supported by the fact that the H(BB) values extracted from the experimental data for oligo(para-phenylene) (H(BB) = 11,400 cm(-1)) and oligo(2,5-thiophene) (12,300 cm(-1)) differ by <10%. The results presented here offer unique insight into the intrinsic molecular factors that govern H(DA) and β, which are important for understanding the electronic origin of electron transfer and electron transport mediated by molecular bridges.

EPR, ENDOR, and electronic structure studies of the Jahn-Teller distortion in an Fe(V) nitride.

The recently synthesized and isolated low-coordinate FeV nitride complex has numerous implications as a model for high-oxidation states in biological and industrial systems. The trigonal [PhB(tBuIm)3FeV≡N]+ (where (PhB(tBuIm)3– = phenyltris(3-tert-butylimidazol-2-ylidene)), (1) low-spin d3 (S = 1/2) coordination compound is subject to a Jahn–Teller (JT) distortion of its doubly degenerate 2E ground state. The electronic structure of this complex is analyzed by a combination of extended versions of the formal two-orbital pseudo Jahn–Teller (PJT) treatment and of quantum chemical computations of the PJT effect. The formal treatment is extended to incorporate mixing of the two e orbital doublets (30%) that results from a lowering of the idealized molecular symmetry from D3h to C3v through strong “doming” of the Fe–C3 core. Correspondingly we introduce novel DFT/CASSCF computational methods in the computation of electronic structure, which reveal a quadratic JT distortion and significant e–e mixing, thus reaching a new level of synergism between computational and formal treatments. Hyperfine and quadrupole tensors are obtained by pulsed 35 GHz ENDOR measurements for the 14/15N-nitride and the 11B axial ligands, and spectra are obtained from the imidazole-2-ylidene 13C atoms that are not bound to Fe. Analysis of the nitride ENDOR tensors surprisingly reveals an essentially spherical nitride trianion bound to Fe, with negative spin density and minimal charge density anisotropy. The four-coordinate 11B, as expected, exhibits negligible bonding to Fe. A detailed analysis of the frontier orbitals provided by the electronic structure calculations provides insight into the reactivity of 1: JT-induced symmetry lowering provides an orbital selection mechanism for proton or H atom transfer reactivity.

Electronic and exchange coupling in a cross-conjugated D-B-A biradical: mechanistic implications for quantum interference effects.

A combination of variable-temperature EPR spectroscopy, electronic absorption spectroscopy, and magnetic susceptibility measurements have been performed on Tp(Cum,Me)Zn(SQ-m-Ph-NN) (1-meta) a donor-bridge-acceptor (D-B-A) biradical that possesses a cross-conjugated meta-phenylene (m-Ph) bridge and a spin singlet ground state. The experimental results have been interpreted in the context of detailed bonding and excited-state computations in order to understand the excited-state electronic structure of 1-meta. The results reveal important excited-state contributions to the ground-state singlet-triplet splitting in this cross-conjugated D-B-A biradical that contribute to our understanding of electronic coupling in cross-conjugated molecules and specifically to quantum interference effects. In contrast to the conjugated isomer, which is a D-B-A biradical possessing a para-phenylene bridge, admixture of a single low-lying singly excited D → A type configuration into the cross-conjugated D-B-A biradical ground state makes a negligible contribution to the ground-state magnetic exchange interaction. Instead, an excited state formed by a Ph-NN (HOMO) → Ph-NN (LUMO) one-electron promotion configurationally mixes into the ground state of the m-Ph bridged D-A biradical. This results in a double (dynamic) spin polarization mechanism as the dominant contributor to ground-state antiferromagnetic exchange coupling between the SQ and NN spins. Thus, the dominant exchange mechanism is one that activates the bridge moiety via the spin polarization of a doubly occupied orbital with phenylene bridge character. This mechanism is important, as it enhances the electronic and magnetic communication in cross-conjugated D-B-A molecules where, in the case of 1-meta, the magnetic exchange in the active electron approximation is expected to be J ~ 0 cm(-1). We hypothesize that similar superexchange mechanisms are common to all cross-conjugated D-B-A triads. Our results are compared to quantum interference effects on electron transfer/transport when cross-conjugated molecules are employed as the bridge or molecular wire component and suggest a mechanism by which electronic coupling (and therefore electron transfer/transport) can be modulated.

13C and 63,65Cu ENDOR studies of CO Dehydrogenase from Oligotropha carboxidovorans. Experimental Evidence in Support of a Copper–Carbonyl Intermediate

We report here an ENDOR study of an S = 1/2 intermediate state trapped during reduction of the binuclear Mo/Cu enzyme CO dehydrogenase by CO. ENDOR spectra of this state confirm that the (63,65)Cu nuclei exhibits strong and almost entirely isotropic coupling to the unpaired electron, show that this coupling atypically has a positive sign, aiso = +148 MHz, and indicate an apparently undetectably small quadrupolar coupling. When the intermediate is generated using (13)CO, coupling to the (13)C is observed, with aiso = +17.3 MHz. A comparison with the couplings seen in related, structurally assigned Mo(V) species from xanthine oxidase, in conjunction with complementary computational studies, leads us to conclude that the intermediate contains a partially reduced Mo(V)/Cu(I) center with CO bound at the copper. Our results provide strong experimental support for a reaction mechanism that proceeds from a comparable complex of CO with fully oxidized Mo(VI)/Cu(I) enzyme.

An MCD spectroscopic study of the molybdenum active site in sulfite oxidase: insight into the role of coordinated cysteine.

Temperature-dependent magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectroscopy has been used for the first time to probe the electronic structure of the Mo active site in sulfite oxidase (SO). The enzyme was poised in the catalytically relevant [Mo(V):Fe(II)] state by anaerobic reduction of the enzyme with the natural substrate, sulfite, in the absence of the physiological oxidant cytochrome c. The [Mo(V):Fe(II)] state is of particular importance, as it is proposed to be a catalytic intermediate in the oxidative half reaction, where SO is reoxidized to the resting [Mo(VI):Fe(III)] state by two sequential one-electron transfers to cytochrome c. The MCD spectrum of the enzyme shows no charge transfer transitions below approximately 17000 cm(-1). This has been interpreted to result from (1) a severe reduction in ene-1,2-dithiolate sulfur in-plane and out-of-plane p orbital mixing, (2) a decrease in the dithiolate sulfur out-of-plane p-Mo d(xy) orbital overlap, and (3) an orthogonal orientation between the vertical cysteine sulfur p (perpendicular to the Mo-Scys sigma-bond) and Mo d(xy) orbitals. The spectroscopically determined cysteine sulfur p-Mo d(xy) bonding scheme in the [Mo(V):Fe(II)] state is consistent with the crystallographically determined O-Mo-Scys-C dihedral angle of approximately 90 degrees and precludes a covalent interaction between the vertical cysteine sulfur p orbital and Mo d(xy), effectively decoupling the cysteine from an effective through-bond electron transfer pathway. We have tentatively assigned a 22250 cm(-1) positive C-term feature in the MCD as the cysteine S(sigma)-->Mo d(xy) charge transfer that becomes allowed by a combination of configuration interaction and low-symmetry; however, the orbital overlap is anticipated to be quite small due to the near orthogonality of these orbitals. Therefore, we propose that the primary role of the coordinated cysteine is to decrease the effective nuclear charge on Mo by charge donation to the metal, statically poising the active site at more negative reduction potentials during electron transfer (ET) regeneration. Finally, the results of this study are consistent with the pyranopterin ene-1,2-dithiolate acting to couple the Mo site into efficient superexchange pathways for ET regeneration following oxygen atom transfer to the substrate.

Electronic structure contributions to reactivity in xanthine oxidase family enzymes

We review the xanthine oxidase (XO) family of pyranopterin molybdenum enzymes with a specific emphasis on electronic structure contributions to reactivity. In addition to xanthine and aldehyde oxidoreductases, which catalyze the two-electron oxidation of aromatic heterocycles and aldehyde substrates, this mini-review highlights recent work on the closely related carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) that catalyzes the oxidation of CO using a unique Mo–Cu heterobimetallic active site. A primary focus of this mini-review relates to how spectroscopy and computational methods have been used to develop an understanding of critical relationships between geometric structure, electronic structure, and catalytic function.

Mutation in the flavin mononucleotide domain modulates magnetic circular dichroism spectra of the iNOS ferric cyano complex in a substrate-specific manner.

We have obtained low-temperature magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectra for ferric cyano complexes of the wild type and E546N mutant of a human inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) oxygenase/flavin mononucleotide (oxyFMN) construct. The mutation at the FMN domain has previously been shown to modulate the MCD spectra of the l-arginine-bound ferric iNOS heme (Sempombe, J.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 6940-6941). The addition of l-arginine to the wild-type protein causes notable changes in the CN(-)-adduct MCD spectrum, while the E546N mutant spectrum is not perturbed. Moreover, the MCD spectral perturbation observed with l-arginine is absent in the CN(-) complexes incubated with N-hydroxy-L-arginine, which is the substrate for the second step of NOS catalysis. These results indicate that interdomain FMN-heme interactions exert a long-range effect on key heme axial ligand-substrate interactions that determine substrate oxidation pathways of NOS.