Martin Lamb

Literacy in English and the Transformation of Self and Society in Post-Soeharto Indonesia

Abstract Among several hundred indigenous languages, Bahasa Indonesia gained pre-eminence as the national language of Indonesia during the countrys first 50 years of independence. The fall of Soeharto in 1998 and the subsequent devolution of power to the regions might have been expected to lead to a resurgence in use of local languages but instead it appears to be English which is filling the ecological spaces. Propagated by government, demanded by employers, broadcast by the media, imposed by schools and encouraged by parents, the language not surprisingly occupies an important space in the developing mindset of many young Indonesians, going far beyond its actual practical value in daily life. Drawing on two empirical studies in Sumatra, one a large-scale evaluation of educational provision, the other a case study of English learning at school, the paper shows how the degree of investment which young Indonesians make in the language is not solely a matter of personal agency but is constrained by inequalities in the distribution of cultural, social and economic capital. Unless radical curriculum changes are introduced, the spread of English may in the long-term only serve to deepen these inequalities.

The motivational dimension of language teaching

Motivation is recognized as a vital component in successful second language learning, and has been the subject of intensive research in recent decades. This review focuses on a growing branch of this research effort, that which examines the motivational effects of language teaching. This is pertinent because, despite enhanced mobility and expanding access to foreign languages online, most learners’ early encounters with the second language (L2) still take place in classrooms, and these encounters may shape attitudes and determine students’ willingness to invest further in the L2. Four main types of research are reviewed: first, that which deliberately seeks to identify and evaluate strategies to motivate L2 learners; second, that which has tested the validity of psychological theories of motivation by applying their precepts in L2 classrooms; third, that which assesses the motivational effects of a pedagogical innovation or intervention; fourth, research on what has been too often the unintended outcome of language education, namely learner demotivation. The review highlights the complexity of the relationship between teaching and learner motivation but an attempt is made to articulate some emerging verities and to point towards the most promising avenues for future research.

Cultural contrasts and commonalities in inspiring language teaching

Inspiring teaching is the kind of pedagogy that motivates pupils to study autonomously, in their own time, of their own volition beyond the classroom, and may be particularly important for long-term endeavours such as learning a second language. This study aimed to find out the prevalence and nature of inspiring English language teaching in the state school systems in two Asian contexts, Guangzhou, China and Jakarta, Indonesia, using an open-item survey which asked learners to nominate and describe inspiring teachers they had had in school. Seven of these teachers were then visited in their schools, interviewed and observed teaching in class. The response to the survey (n = 279) indicated that inspiring teaching was probably not common but when it did occur, learners usually recalled that the teacher had a wide range of qualities, though some systematic differences were noted between Chinese and Indonesian respondents. Cultural differences were even more noticeable in the observed lessons, suggesting that the teachers worked hard to ensure their practice was contextually appropriate. All the teachers evinced an intrinsic motivation to teach, indicating that this factor might underlie inspiring pedagogy wherever it takes place. We argue for more research on inspiring teaching to complement that on motivational strategies.

When motivation research motivates: issues in long-term empirical investigations

ABSTRACT Increasing awareness of how individual motivation to learn language can fluctuate and change puts a premium on longitudinal research methods which can track learners over set periods of time. Revisiting previous research participants is one means of effecting this. This paper describes follow-up studies of an original research project in Indonesia and presents data showing the L2 motivational trajectories of nine participants over a decade. One major finding however was that the participants were influenced by taking part in the research. The paper re-analyses data from all stages of the research and identifies the main source of the influence to be the authority participants invest in the researcher, and the inspiration they draw from occasional contact with a foreigner. The findings therefore lend some support to the long-term motivating power of ‘ought-to’ and ‘ideal’ L2 selves. In highlighting researcher effects, the paper emphasizes the need for reflexivity in designing and carrying out longitudinal research, especially when interpreting interview data. The presence of possible negative effects on at least one participant also raises ethical issues for the selection of participants and their interaction with the researcher.

Learner autonomy in developing countries

Learner autonomy may have special relevance now in developing countries, where a dissonance often exists between what formal education offers and what many learners want or need. Globalization and its technologies are providing new means of accessing knowledge, but school language lessons remain largely unchanged. Almost by default, successful language learners in developing country contexts are autonomous learners who can exploit out-of-school resources, while some of the most effective pedagogy involves promoting autonomy as a means of confronting low-resource challenges. This chapter argues for more research into both these phenomena, in order to increase understanding of them and to enable identification of principles for practice. It also emphasizes the need for such research to be conducted with and by local teachers and learners.