Martin R. Adams

A physiologic and aerodynamic interpretation of fluent and stuttered speech

In this paper, an attempt has been made to explain speech fluency in physiological and aerodynamic terms. Particular portions of this formulation are identified and used as reference points against which to compare reviews and interpretations of selected bodies of clinical and experimental literature dealing with stuttering. Some possible motor determinants of stuttering are identified and therapeutic and experimental implications are drawn and discussed.

Unsophisticated judges' perceptual evaluations of the speech of “successfully treated” stutterers

Abstract The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the speech of “successfully therapeutized” stutterers and a group of partially treated stutterers was perceptually different from the speech of normal speakers when judged by unsophisticated listeners. Tape-recorded speech samples of treated stutterers were obtained from leading proponents of (1) Van Riperian, (2) metronome-conditioned speech retraining, (3) delayed auditory feedback, (4) operant conditioning, (5) precision fluency shaping, and (6) “holistic” therapy programs. Fluent speech samples from these groups of stutterers were paired with matched fluent samples of normal talkers and presented to a group of 20 unsophisticated judges. The judges were instructed to select from each paired speech sample presented to them the one produced by the stuttering subject. The results of the analyses showed that five of seven experimental groups were identified at levels significantly above chance. It can be concluded that the fluent speech of the partially and successfully treated stutterers was perceptibly different from the utterances of the normal speakers and that the perceptual disparity can be detected, even by unsophisticated listeners.

Perceptual study of the speech of “successfully therapeutized” stutterers

Abstract The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the fluent speech of “successfully therapeutized” stutterers and a group of partially treated stutterers was perceptually different from the fluent speech of normal speaking subjects. Tape recorded speech samples of treated stutterers were obtained from leading exponents of (1) Van Riperian, (2) metronome-conditioned speech retraining, (3) delayed auditory feedback, (4) operant conditioning, (5) precision fluency shaping, and (6) “holistic” therapy programs. All forms of disfluency were edited out of these tapes. The remaining samples were then paired with matched fluent samples of normal talkers and presented to a group of 20 sophisticated judges. The judges were instructed to select from each paired speech sample presented to them the one produced by the stuttering subject. The results of the analyses of variance for correct identification of the stutterers showed that the partially treated stutterers, as well as each group of therapeutized stutterers, were identified at levels significantly above chance. This meant that the fluent speech of the partially and successfully treated stutterers was perceptibly different from the utterances of the normal speakers sampled. In addition, the analyses of variance also revealed that all stuttering groups had a significant severity factor. This finding indicated there was a significant difference between the severity subgroup in all the samples investigated. These results were discussed in terms of their clinical implications.

A clinical strategy for differentiating the normally nonfluent child and the incipient stutterer

Abstract There are substantial funds of experimental and clinical data that bear on various aspects of the nonfluencies of young children, especially those diagnosed as stutterers. These data are critically examined as a means of identifying nonfluency characteristics that are peculiar to either incipient stutterers or normally nonfluent children. The behavioral features identified are incorporated into a simple clinical strategy that therapists can employ to differentiate between members of the two young speaker populations being considered. Examples of this strategy as it was applied in the evaluation of specific patients are presented.

Voice onset and articulatory constriction requirements in a speech segment and their relation to the amount of stuttering adaptation

Abstract This study evaluated the hypothesis that the amount of stuttering adaptation increases as the number of requirements for the prompt onset of phonation and complete articulatory constriction across passages decreases. To test this prediction, three special reading passages were constructed. The number of requirements for the quick initiation of phonation and complete articulatory constriction decreased from passages I to II to III. Eleven stutterers read each passage five times. Of these individuals, seven exhibited the well-known adaptation effect on all three selections. However, adaptation increased significantly from passage I to II to III. Among the remaining four subjects, three failed to adapt on passage I which contained the greatest number of requirements for the prompt onset of phonation and complete articulatory constrictions. These results were interpreted as supporting the hypothesis under test.

Stuttering theory, research, and therapy: The present and future

Abstract The purpose of this article is to describe present dominant themes in stuttering theory, research, and therapy, and then suggest some directions that work in these areas might now take. The recommendations offered are not all-inclusive, nor do they represent imperatives for future work. Rather, the suggestions put forth seem to follow logically from the present state of theorizing, data gathering, and clinical management.

Further analysis of stuttering as a phonetic transition defect

Abstract This article presents a further analysis of stuttering as a phonetic transition defect. Three types of phonetic transitions are identified. Two of these occur within words and represent sites where stutterings are readily detectable. The third transition involves movement from the end of one word to the beginning of the next. Spectrographic evidence is provided to show that stuttering also occurs at points of transition of this type. The same data are interpreted relative to their implications for stuttering theory, research, and therapy.

Air flow characteristics of the speech of stutterers and non stutterers

Abstract This study involved respirometric measurements of six normals and six stutterers throughout vocal and whispered readings of 12 CVC words. In each condition, dependent variables were peak air flow rates on initial and final consonants, flow duration and flow volume between peaks. The stutterers, both individually and as a group, were almost completely fluent during the readings in both conditions. At the same time, their air flow, duration and volume scores either equalled or exceeded those of the controls. These results are discussed in terms of how air flow and durational features of articulation contribute to fluent speech. Directions for future work are also described.

Comparisons among various forms of individual stutterers' disfluency

Abstract A contemporary issue in stuttering theory and research involves the question of whether stuttering behaviors should be treated as a functional unit or be dealt with individually and more analytically. In this study, several disfluent behaviors of two adult stutterers were scrutinized during massed oral readings of a simple prose passage. Statistical evaluations of various aspects of the data gathered revealed significant differences between the frequencies of, and courses followed by, many of these disfluent responses. These results were interpreted as supporting the need for more discriminative assessments of stuttering behaviors.