Martin Ricker

Markets drive the specialization strategies of forest peoples

Engagement in the market changes the opportunities and strategies of forest-related peoples. Efforts to support rural development need to better understand the potential importance of markets and the way people respond to them. To this end, we compared 61 case studies of the commercial production and trade of nontimber forest products from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The results show that product use is shaped by local markets and institutions, resource abundance, and the relative level of development. Larger regional patterns are also important. High-value products tend to be managed intensively by specialized producers and yield substantially higher incomes than those generated by the less specialized producers of less managed, low-value products. We conclude that commercial trade drives a process of intensified production and household specialization among forest peoples.

Enriching the rainforest with native fruit trees: an ecological and economic analysis in Los Tuxtlas (Veracruz, Mexico)

Tropical forests continue to be deforested because forest owners believe they can earn more income through land uses involving forest conversion. A case study in a Mexican rainforest revealed that enrichment planting with the native tree species Pouteria sapota (‘mamey’) is a management approach that can increase the commercial value of the forest enough to compete with these destructive land uses. Depending on the land value, planting more than 40‐200 seedlings per hectare into the natural forest is expected to have a higher net present value than one hectare of existing cattle pasture. To arrive at this conclusion, we were able to project long-term tree growth and fruit production from a few years’ increment measurements, based on a new method for estimating ages of tropical trees without annual growth rings. This approach facilitates rather rapid cost-benefit analysis of tropical forest management with native species.

Useful plants of the Los Tuxtlas rain forest (Veracruz, Mexico): Considerations of their market potential

The 640 hectare large Los Tuxtlas rain forest reserve was analyzed for the commercial potential of its 860 native flowering plant species. Excluding plants with medicinal or chemical use, 91 species (10.6%) are found in the market, and we consider an additional 72 species (8.4%) to have market potential. For each of the 163 species, the following information is given: scientific and common name, geographic distribution, growth form, use, and market status. Of the 163 species, 2.4% are endemic to the Los Tuxtlas region, 10.4% are restricted to Mexico, 42.3% extend further into Central America, and 39.3% occur also in South America, while 20.2% are found in the West Indies. The majority of species (68.7%) are trees. In terms of use categories, 35.0% are employed for their timber, 32.5% for their fuelwood, 24.5% for ornamental purposes, 22.7% for their edible fruits, leaves or flowers, 11.0% for plywood or paper, 6.1% for artwork and weaving, and 1.2% as fodder plants. The more than 160 marketable species would make it possible to develop species-diverse forests of high commercial value, as an alternative to current land use, which consists in converting forest into cattle pastures.ResumenSe analizó el potencial comercial de las 860 especies de angiospermas nativas a la reserva de Los Tuxtlas (640 hectáreas). Omitiendo las plantas con uso medicinal o químico, 91 especies (10.6%) se encontraron en el mercado, a las cuales se pueden añadir 72 especies (8.4%) con potencial para la comercialización. Para cada una de las 163 especies se proporciona el nombre científico y común, distribución geográfica, forma de crecimiento, uso y situación en el mercado. La distribución geográfica natural de las 163 especies indica que el 2.4% son endémicas en la región de Los Tuxtlas, 10.4% se restringen a Mexico, 42.3% se extienden hasta América Central, y el 39.3% se distribuyen hasta Sudamérica, mientras el 20.2% se encuentran en las Antillas. La mayoría de las especies son árboles (68.7%). En cuanto a sus categorías de uso, el 35.0% se utilizan por su madera, 32.5% por su leña, 24.5% son ornamentales, el 22.7% se usan por sus frutos, hojas o flores comestibles, el 11.0% para triplay o papel, el 6.1% en artesanía o cestería y el 1.2% como plantas forrajeras. El conjunto de las más de 160 especies de interés comercial permitiría desarrollar bosques diversos en especies y con un alto valor comercial, lo que es una alternativa promisoria al uso actual del terreno, el cual consiste en la transformación de la selva en pastizales para ganado.

Optimising seedling management: Pouteria sapota, Diospyros digyna, and Cedrela odorata in a Mexican rainforest

Seedlings of three commercial native tree species were planted under heterogeneous light and nutrient conditions in primary rainforest, secondary forest, and open pasture in Los Tuxtlas (Veracruz, Mexico). Management consisted of weeding around seedlings, and watering during the dry period. The objective was to find those natural growth conditions that maximize height growth in the first 2 years after transplantation from a nursery. Using stepwise multiple linear regression, the combined effect of varying canopy openness, leaf nutrients, initial seedling height, and seed mass on the plant height at the end of the study were analysed. The effect of the light environment differed clearly between species: the fruit species Pouteria sapota (Jacquin) H.E. Moore & Stearn (Mamey) and Diospyros digyna Jacquin (Black Sapote) revealed an optimal canopy openness of 60 and 55%, respectively, while the timber species Cedrela odorata Linnaeus (Spanish Cedar) grew best under maximum openness. Consequently, P. sapota and D. digyna are recommendable for an enrichment or shelterwood system in the forest, while C. odorata is recommendable as a reforestation species in the open. For P. sapota and D. digyna, plant height variation at the end of the study was also explained by the leaf zinc concentration, initial plant height, and in P. sapota by the seed mass and leaf calcium/magnesium ratio (for C. odorata, seed mass and nutrients had not been measured). The regression model indicated that considerable height increases are possible by optimizing these growth parameters within the encountered ranges. For P. sapota, average height growth after 24 months in the field could be increased 2.5-fold, from 111 cm with average values to 280 cm with optimal values. For D. digyna, average height growth after 17 months could be increased 1.8-fold, from 78 to 138 cm. For C. odorata, the possible increase after 16 months was 2.7-fold, from 55 to 147 cm. # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Limits to economic growth as shown by a computable general equilibrium model

Abstract Economic growth is distinguished from commercial growth and is defined in this article as the growth of the value a society puts in monetary terms on all commercial and non-commercial goods and values it possesses during a certain period. A computable general equilibrium model is used to show the impact of changes in the endowments, preferences and production possibilities on economic income, which in the model comprises all wealth. Besides land with its natural resources and labor, energy is the key endowment to drive an economy. The model leads in an intuitive way to the following conclusions: (1) Societies should start to use appropriate indicators for true economic growth, rather than just for commercial growth as measured by gross national product. (2) All types of economic growth are limited, no matter if based on endowment growth, production efficiency growth, or changes in preferences. (3) Economic growth should be oriented more towards increasing production efficiency and less towards using more natural resources. (4) Human population growth puts at risk the possibilities for average economic growth per person. (5) We should get better prepared to use solar energy in the future. (6) Besides economic growth, there exists pure utility growth, which is not measurable in monetary terms; it includes much of scientific progress in the long run and is of great importance even though it cannot be included in an indicator of economic growth.

Alkaloid diversity in eleven species of Ormosia and in Clathrotropis macrocarpa (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)

Quinolizidine alkaloids were surveyed using gas chromatography (GC) and combined mass spectroscopy (MS) in bark or leaves of eleven species ofOrmosia Jackson as well as inClathrotropis macrocarpa Ducke from tropical forests in Latin America. A list of detected alkaloids, with their MS fragmentation patterns and GC retention indices, is given, as are the distribution of alkaloids among the samples and their detected concentrations. Alkaloid diversity inOrmosia was high, and the taxonomic distribution of specific alkaloids was not congruent with morphological taxonomic criteria: Of 143 alkaloids apparent in 14 samples, 65 were observed in only one sample, and no single alkaloid was common to all samples. Within a species, alkaloid concentrations were inconsistent and therefore cannot be used as a taxonomic character. This was shown for leaf alkaloid concentrations of two neighboring conspecific trees in the same habitat.ResumenHemos analizado mediante cromatografia de gases (CG) y espectrometría de masas (EM) la composición en alcaloides quinolizidínicos de muestras de corteza y hojas de once especies deOrmosia Jackson y deClathrotropis macrocarpa Ducke, procedentes de las selvas de Latinoamérica. Presentamos una lista completa de los alcaloides detectados incluyendo sus fragmentos en EM y su índice de retención en CG. También presentamos la distribución de los alcaloides en las muestras y su concentración. La variedad de alcaloides era alta y su distribución por especies no se ajustó con criterios taxonómicos morfológicos: De los 143 alcaloides detectados en 14 muestras, 65 alcaloides estaban presentes en una sola muestra y ningún en todas las muestras. La concentración de los alcaloides en una especie no fue consistente y por lo tanto no puede utilizarse como carácter taxonómico. Esta conclusión proviene del análisis de la concentración de alcaloides en hojas de dos árboles de la misma especie en el mismo hábitat.

The case forBorojoa patinoi (rubiaceae) in the chocó region, Colombia

The Case for Borojoa patinoi in the Chocó Region, Colombia. Economic Botany 51(1): 39-48. 1997. The economic botany of the tree speciesBorojoa patinoi is presented after consulting all available literature and visiting the region.Borojoa patinoi is a noteworthy species in that it is endemic to the biogeographic Chocó region, its fruits have high market value, and it is an understory tree, which means it can be cultivated without clearing the overstory trees. This paper reviews the literature on the taxonomy and phytogeography of the genus, as well as the production ecology of the species. Two net present value models are presented to analyze the species economically. From the models, we conclude that in many areas in the Chocó, plantingB. patinoi trees is likely to be economically more competitive than planting commercial timber species. Furthermore, monocultures ofB. patinoi may not be the economically optimal production system. BesidesB. patinoi, some other Chocó species with edible fruits are suggested for further research.ResumenSe presenta la botánica económica de la especie árboreaBorojoa patinoi después de haber consultado la literatura disponible y haber visitado la región.Borojoa patinoi es una especie notable porque es endémica de la región biogeográfica del Chocó, sus frutos tienen un valor alto en el mercado y es un árbol del sotobosque, lo que permite su cultivo sin tener que eliminar los árboles del dosel. Este artículo revisa la literatura sobre la taxonomía y fitogeografía del género, así como la ecología relacionada con la producción de la especie. Se presentan dos modelos de valores presentes netos para analizar la especie desde un punto de vista económico. A partir de los modelos concluimos que es probable encontrar muchas áreas en el Chocó, donde la siembra de árboles deB. patinoi es económicamente más competitiva que la siembra de especies maderables comerciales. Además, los monocultivos deB. patinoi podrían ser sistemas de producción no óptimos económicamente. Aparte deB. patinoi, se proponen algunas otras especies chocoanas con frutos comestibles para mayor investigación.

Effect of initial soil properties on six‐year growth of 15 tree species in tropical restoration plantings

Abstract In restoration plantings in degraded pastures, initial soil nutrient status may lead to differential growth of tropical tree species with diverse life history attributes and capacity for N2 fixation. In 2006, we planted 1,440 seedlings of 15 native tree species in 16 fenced plots (30 × 30 m) in a 60‐year‐old pasture in Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico, in two planting combinations. In the first year, we evaluated bulk density, pH, the concentration of organic carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), ammonia (NO3−), nitrate (NH4+), and total phosphorus (P) in the upper soil profile (0–20 cm in depth) of all plots. The first two axes of two principal component analyses explained more than 60% of the variation in soil variables: The axes were related to increasing bulk density, NO3−, NH4+, total N concentration, and pH. Average relative growth rates in diameter at the stem base of the juvenile trees after 6 years were higher for pioneer (45.7%) and N2‐fixing species (47.6%) than for nonpioneer (34.7%) and nonfixing species (36.2%). Most N2‐fixing species and those with the slowest growth rates did not respond to soil attributes. Tree species benefited from higher pH levels and existing litter biomass. The pioneers Ficus yoponensis, Cecropia obtusifolia, and Heliocarpus appendiculatus, and the N2‐fixing nonpioneers Cojoba arborea, Inga sinacae, and Platymiscium dimorphandrum were promising for forest restoration on our site, given their high growth rates.

Letter to the Editor: About the quality and impact of scientific articles

It is argued that counting the total number of times a scientific article is cited by others, does neither result in a proxy for its cognitive impact nor for its quality. One would have to distinguish at least substitutable and fundamental references. A supposed correlation between peer review assessments and citation counts is conceptually problematic, because peer review includes objective as well as subjective considerations (convictions). With refined methods, however, a differential citation analysis might be able in the future to answer if a given article did or did not have positive cognitive impact on subsequent research.

A numerical algorithm with preference statements to evaluate the performance of scientists

Abstract Academic evaluation committees have been increasingly receptive for using the number of published indexed articles, as well as citations, to evaluate the performance of scientists. It is, however, impossible to develop a stand-alone, objective numerical algorithm for the evaluation of academic activities, because any evaluation necessarily includes subjective preference statements. In a market, the market prices represent preference statements, but scientists work largely in a non-market context. I propose a numerical algorithm that serves to determine the distribution of reward money in Mexico’s evaluation system, which uses relative prices of scientific goods and services as input. The relative prices would be determined by an evaluation committee. In this way, large evaluation systems (like Mexico’s Sistema Nacional de Investigadores) could work semi-automatically, but not arbitrarily or superficially, to determine quantitatively the academic performance of scientists every few years. Data of 73 scientists from the Biology Institute of Mexico’s National University are analyzed, and it is shown that the reward assignation and academic priorities depend heavily on those preferences. A maximum number of products or activities to be evaluated is recommended, to encourage quality over quantity.