Martin Tollinger

Direct observation of the dynamic process underlying allosteric signal transmission.

Allosteric regulation is an effective mechanism of control in biological processes. In allosteric proteins a signal originating at one site in the molecule is communicated through the protein structure to trigger a specific response at a remote site. Using NMR relaxation dispersion techniques we directly observe the dynamic process through which the KIX domain of CREB binding protein communicates allosteric information between binding sites. KIX mediates cooperativity between pairs of transcription factors through binding to two distinct interaction surfaces in an allosteric manner. We show that binding the activation domain of the mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) transcription factor to KIX induces a redistribution of the relative populations of KIX conformations toward a high-energy state in which the allosterically activated second binding site is already preformed, consistent with the Monod-Wyman-Changeux (WMC) model of allostery. The structural rearrangement process that links the two conformers and by which allosteric information is communicated occurs with a time constant of 3 ms at 27 degrees C. Our dynamic NMR data reveal that an evolutionarily conserved network of hydrophobic amino acids constitutes the pathway through which information is transmitted.

Site-specific contributions to the pH dependence of protein stability

Understanding protein stability is a significant challenge requiring characterization of interactions within both folded and unfolded states. Of these, electrostatic interactions influence ionization equilibria of acidic and basic groups and diversify their pKa values. The pH dependence of the thermodynamic stability (ΔGFU) of a protein arises as a consequence of differential pKa values between folded and unfolded states. Previous attempts to calculate pH-dependent contributions to stability have been limited by the lack of experimental unfolded state pKa values. Using recently developed NMR spectroscopic methods, we have determined residue-specific pKa values for a thermodynamically unstable Src homology 3 domain in both states, enabling the calculation of the pH dependence of stability based on simple analytical expressions. The calculated pH stability profile obtained agrees very well with experiment, unlike profiles derived from two current models of electrostatic interactions within unfolded states. Most importantly, per-residue contributions to the pH dependence of ΔGFU derived from the data provide insights into specific electrostatic interactions in both the folded and unfolded states and their roles in protein stability. These interactions include a hydrogen bond between the Asp-8 side-chain and the Lys-21 backbone amide group in the folded state, which represents a highly conserved interaction in Src homology 3 domains.

Calculation of Residual Dipolar Couplings from Disordered State Ensembles Using Local Alignment

Residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) have been observed in disordered states of several proteins. While their nonuniform values were initially surprising, it has been shown that reasonable approximation of experimental RDCs can be obtained using simple statistical coil models and assuming global alignment of each structure, provided that many thousands of conformers are averaged. Here we show that, by using short local alignment tensors, we can achieve good agreement between experimental and simulated RDCs with far fewer structures than required when using global alignment. This makes the possibility of using RDCs as direct restraints in structural calculations of disordered proteins much more feasible. In addition, it provides insight into the nature of RDCs in disordered states, suggesting that they are primarily reporting on local structure.

The allosteric communication pathways in KIX domain of CBP

Allosteric regulation plays an important role in a myriad of biomacromolecular processes. Specifically, in a protein, the process of allostery refers to the transmission of a local perturbation, such as ligand binding, to a distant site. Decades after the discovery of this phenomenon, models built on static images of proteins are being reconsidered with the knowledge that protein dynamics plays an important role in its function. Molecular dynamics simulations are a valuable tool for studying complex biomolecular systems, providing an atomistic description of their structure and dynamics. Unfortunately, their predictive power has been limited by the complexity of the biomolecule free-energy surface and by the length of the allosteric timescale (in the order of milliseconds). In this work, we are able to probe the origins of the allosteric changes that transcription factor mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) causes to the interactions of KIX domain of CREB-binding protein (CBP) with phosphorylated kinase inducible domain (pKID), by combing all-atom molecular dynamics with enhanced sampling methods recently developed in our group. We discuss our results in relation to previous NMR studies. We also develop a general simulations protocol to study allosteric phenomena and many other biological processes that occur in the micro/milliseconds timescale.

Synthesis of (6-13C)Pyrimidine Nucleotides as Spin-Labels for RNA Dynamics

We present a (13)C-based isotope labeling protocol for RNA. Using (6-(13)C)pyrimidine phosphoramidite building blocks, site-specific labels can be incorporated into a target RNA via chemical oligonucleotide solid-phase synthesis. This labeling scheme is particularly useful for studying milli- to microsecond dynamics via NMR spectroscopy, as an isolated spin system is a crucial prerequisite to apply Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) relaxation dispersion type experiments. We demonstrate the applicability for the characterization and detection of functional dynamics on various time scales by incorporating the (6-(13)C)uridine and -cytidine labels into biologically relevant RNAs. The refolding kinetics of a bistable terminator antiterminator segment involved in the gene regulation process controlled by the preQ(1) riboswitch class I was investigated. Using (13)C CPMG relaxation dispersion NMR spectroscopy, the milli- to microsecond dynamics of the HIV-1 transactivation response element RNA and the Varkud satellite stem loop V motif was addressed.

Allosteric Communication in the KIX Domain Proceeds through Dynamic Repacking of the Hydrophobic Core.

The KIX domain of the transcriptional coactivator CREB binding protein (CBP) co-operatively mediates interactions between transcription factors. Binding of the transcription factor mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) induces the formation of a low-populated conformer of KIX that resembles the conformation of the KIX domain in the presence of a second transcription factor molecule. NMR spin relaxation studies have previously shown that allosteric coupling proceeds through a network of hydrophobic core residues that bridge the two binding sites. Here we describe high-resolution NMR solution structures of the binary complex of KIX with MLL and the ternary complex of KIX formed with MLL and phosphorylated kinase inducible domain of CREB (pKID) as a second ligand. We show that binding of pKID to the binary complex of KIX with MLL is accompanied by a defined repacking of the allosteric network in the hydrophobic core of the protein. Rotamer populations derived from methyl group 13C chemical shifts reveal a dynamic contribution to the repacking process that is not captured by the structural coordinates and exemplify the dynamic nature of allosteric communication in the KIX domain.

NMR Techniques to Study Hydrogen Bondingin Aqueous Solution

Summary. Recent improvements in NMR methodology have significantly increased the scope of hydrogen bond related problems that can be now addressed by solution NMR methods. A growing number of applications are exploiting these NMR techniques to study complex molecular systems and elicit otherwise inaccessible information on hydrogen bonding in aqueous solution.Zusammenfassung. Kürzlich erarbeitete methodische Weiterentwicklungen der Kernresonanzspektroskopie erlauben nunmehr auch Untersuchungen von Wasserstoffbrücken in wäßriger Lösung. Diese neuartigen experimentellen Methoden wurden bereits erfolgreich angewandt, um geometrische und energetische Wasserstoffbrückenparameter in Lösung zu bestimmen.

An efficient method for the preparation of methylcobalamin, nature's organometallic methyl transfer catalyst

Abstract Methylcobalamin ( 1 ), the structurally simplest organocobalamin and natures organometallic methyl transfer catalyst, was prepared from aquocob(III)alamin and methyl iodide in > 90% yield in a previously unexplored, but experimentally simple procedure, using formate as reducing agent and exploiting the previously established tendency of cob(II)alamin to be alkylated by methyliodide. A thorough NMR-spectroscopic analysis of aqueous solutions of this organometallic B 12 -derivative was carried out at ambient temperature, which allowed the unambiguous and nearly complete assignment of the proton, nitrogen and carbon signals.

Fold stability during endolysosomal acidification is a key factor for allergenicity and immunogenicity of the major birch pollen allergen

Background The search for intrinsic factors, which account for a proteins capability to act as an allergen, is ongoing. Fold stability has been identified as a molecular feature that affects processing and presentation, thereby influencing an antigens immunologic properties. Objective We assessed how changes in fold stability modulate the immunogenicity and sensitization capacity of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1. Methods By exploiting an exhaustive virtual mutation screening, we generated mutants of the prototype allergen Bet v 1 with enhanced thermal and chemical stability and rigidity. Structural changes were analyzed by means of x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and molecular dynamics simulations. Stability was monitored by using differential scanning calorimetry, circular dichroism, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Endolysosomal degradation was simulated in vitro by using the microsomal fraction of JAWS II cells, followed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Immunologic properties were characterized in vitro by using a human T-cell line specific for the immunodominant epitope of Bet v 1 and in vivo in an adjuvant-free BALB/c mouse model. Results Fold stabilization of Bet v 1 was pH dependent and resulted in resistance to endosomal degradation at a pH of 5 or greater, affecting presentation of the immunodominant T-cell epitope in vitro. These properties translated in vivo into a strong allergy-promoting TH2-type immune response. Efficient TH2 cell activation required both an increased stability at the pH of the early endosome and efficient degradation at lower pH in the late endosomal/lysosomal compartment. Conclusions Our data indicate that differential pH-dependent fold stability along endosomal maturation is an essential protein-inherent determinant of allergenicity.

Mapping the ligand binding site at protein side-chains in protein-ligand complexes through NOE difference spectroscopy ∗

This report describes a novel NMR approach for mapping the interaction surface between an unlabeled ligand and a 13C,15N-labeled protein. The method relies on the spin inversion properties of the dipolar relaxation pathways and records the differential relaxation of two spin modes, where ligand and protein 1H magnetizations are aligned either in a parallel or anti-parallel manner. Selective inversion of protein protons is achieved in a straightforward manner by exploiting the one-bond heteronuclear scalar couplings (1JCH, 1JNH). Suppression of indirect relaxation pathways mediated by bulk water or rapidly exchanging protons is achieved by selective inversion of the water signal in the middle of the NOESY mixing period. The method does not require deuteration of the protein or well separated spectral regions for the protein and the ligand, respectively. Additionally, in contrast to previous methods, the new experiment identifies side-chain enzyme ligand interactions along the intermolecular binding interface. The method is demonstrated with an application to the B12-binding subunit of glutamate mutase from Clostridium tetanomorphum for which NMR chemical shift changes upon B12-nucleotide loop binding and a high-resolution solution structure are available.