Mary A. Steinhardt

Evaluation of a Resilience Intervention to Enhance Coping Strategies and Protective Factors and Decrease Symptomatology.

Objective: In this pilot study, the authors examined the effectiveness of a 4-week resilience intervention to enhance resilience, coping strategies, and protective factors, as well as decrease symptomatology during a period of increased academic stress. Participants and Methods: College students were randomly assigned to experimental (n = 30) and wait-list control (n = 27) groups. The experimental group received a psychoeducational intervention in 4 two-hour weekly sessions. Measures of resilience, coping strategies, protective factors, and symptomatology were administered pre- and postintervention to both groups. Results: Analyses indicated that the experimental group had significantly higher resilience scores, more effective coping strategies (ie, higher problem solving, lower avoidant), higher scores on protective factors (ie, positive affect, self-esteem, self-leadership), and lower scores on symptomatology (ie, depressive symptoms, negative affect, perceived stress) postintervention than did the wait-list control group. Conclusions: These findings indicate that this resilience program may be useful as a stress-management and stress-prevention intervention for college students.

The Conceptualization and Measurement of Perceived Wellness: Integrating Balance Across and Within Dimensions

Purpose. The impact of individual perceptions on health is well-established. However, no valid and reliable measure of individual wellness perceptions exists. Therefore, the purpose was to introduce a measure called the Perceived Wellness Survey (PWS). Design. Convenience sampling facilitated recruitment of a sample large enough to perform factor analysis with adequate power (.85). The appropriateness of factor analysis is supported by Bartletts test (χ2 = 7110, p ≤ .01) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (.91). Setting. The sample (n = 558) was composed of 3M Inc. employees from multiple sites in Austin, Texas (n = 393); employees from MuRata Electronics, Inc., College Station, Pennsylvania (n = 53); and students enrolled at the University of Texas at Austin (n = 112). Subjects. Racial, gender, and age distribution was, respectively, 6.3% African-American (n = 35), 8.2% Asian (n = 46), 73.3% Caucasian (n = 409), 9.5% Hispanic (n = 53), and 2.7% other (n = 15); 47.8% male (n = 267), and 52.2% female (n = 291); and 36.8 years. Measures. Measures included the Perceived Wellness Survey, and two additional versions of the Perceived Wellness Survey designed to measure both discriminant and face validity. Perceived Wellness Survey subscales include physical, spiritual, intellectual, psychological, social, and emotional dimensions. Results. All subscales were correlated (p ≤ .05) with the Perceived Wellness Survey composite and with each other. Evidence of internal consistency (α = .88 to .93), and discriminant, face, and factorial validity was provided. Finally, the Perceived Wellness Survey appears to be a unidimensional scale. Conclusion. The unidimensional nature of the Perceived Wellness Survey suggests that perceptions of wellness in various dimensions are intertwined by their affective nature. The Perceived Wellness Survey appears to be reasonably valid and reliable; however, further research is needed.

Conceptualization and measurement of the spiritual and psychological dimensions of wellness in a college population.

Abstract Wellness is commonly conceptualized as having many dimensions, but little effort has been made to evaluate how spiritual and psychological dimensions are related to overall wellness. To explore the relationship between measures of spiritual and psychological wellness and perceived wellness in a college student population, the authors administered a series of survey instruments to 112 undergraduate students under quiet classroom conditions. They used the Life Attitude Profile to measure spiritual wellness, the Life Orientation Test and the Sense of Coherence Scale to measure psychological wellness, and the Perceived Wellness Survey to measure overall wellness. Path analysis performed with a proposed theoretical model revealed that the effect of life purpose on perceived wellness was mediated by optimism and sense of coherence, which had independent effects on perceived wellness beyond that of life purpose. The findings suggested that an optimistic outlook and sense of coherence must be present for life purpose to enhance a sense of overall well-being.

Reliability and Validity of a Single-Item Measure of Job Satisfaction:

Purpose. To investigate the reliability and validity of a single-item overall job satisfaction measure. Methods. Public agency employees (n = 745) were surveyed regarding job satisfaction, work, personality, and health variables. The single-item measure underwent the following analyses: correction for attenuation formula to estimate minimum reliability; correlations with multiple-item job satisfaction, work, personality, and health measures to determine concurrent validity, construct validity, and specific relevance to health promotion; and logistic regression to determine the predictability of turnover intention. Results. For the single-item measure the minimum reliability estimate was high, all correlational tests for validity were significant, logistic regression indicated substantial predictability of turnover intention, and correlations with the health measures were significant. Discussion. These results are consistent with other studies and support the psychometric properties of this single-item overall job satisfaction measure. Limitations of the study and its implications for worksite health promotion are discussed.

The Relationship of Hardiness, Coping Strategies, and Perceived Stress to Symptoms of Illness

We proposed a conceptual model based on research supporting the relationship between symptoms of illness and the determinants of hardiness, coping strategies, and perceived stress. In this model, hardiness, avoidance coping, and approach coping have paths to perceived stress, perceived stress has a path to symptoms of illness, and hardiness also has a path to symptoms of illness. We examined the goodness of fit of this model using path analysis and tested its stability, as well as the presence of gender effects, in corporate (N = 110) and university (N = 271) samples. The proposed model was a good fit for the data in the corporate sample, and no gender effects were found. The proposed model was not a good fit for the data in the university sample, therefore we added two paths that have received some support in the research: from approach coping to symptoms of illness and from avoidance coping to symptoms of illness. This model was a good fit for the data in the university sample, however, the path from approach coping to symptoms of illness had a critical ratio <2.0, thus we removed this path and ran the model again. The final model was a good fit for the data, and no gender effects were found. Implications for the relationship of hardiness, coping strategies, and perceived stress to health are discussed.

The Relationship Between Hardiness, Supervisor Support, Group Cohesion, and Job Stress as Predictors of Job Satisfaction

Purpose. This study tested a conceptual model based on research supporting the relationship between the predictors of hardiness, supervisor support, and group cohesion and the criterions of job stress and job satisfaction and between the predictor of job stress and the criterion of job satisfaction. Design. The study employed a cross-sectional research design. Survey data were collected as part of the baseline measures assessed prior to an organizational hardiness intervention. Setting. Worksite of Dell Computer Corporation in Austin, Texas. Subjects. The subjects included 160 full-time Dell employees recruited from a convenience sample representing nine work groups (response rate = 90%). Measures. Hardiness was measured using the Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS), job stress was measured using the Perceived Work Stress Scale (PWSS), and supervisor support, group cohesion, and job satisfaction were measured using a proprietary employee attitude survey. Results. In the proposed model, high hardiness, supervisor support, and group cohesion were related to lower levels of job stress, which in turn was related to higher levels of job satisfaction. The model also proposed direct paths from hardiness, supervisor support, and group cohesion to job satisfaction. Path analysis was used to examine the goodness of fit of the model. The proposed model was a good fit for the data (χ2[1, N = 160] = 1.85, p = .174) with the exception of the direct path between group cohesion and job satisfaction. Substantial portions of the variances in job stress (R2 = .19) and job satisfaction (R2 = .44) were accounted for by the predictors. Conclusion. Implications for targeted worksite health promotion efforts to lower job stress and enhance job satisfaction are discussed.

The relationships between self-leadership and enhanced psychological, health, and work outcomes.

Abstract Two cross-sectional studies were conducted to examine the correlations between the concept of self-leadership (as described within the framework of the internal family systems model) and enhanced psychological, health, and work outcomes. In Study 1, self-leadership was significantly related to higher psychological functioning (e.g., effective coping style, greater optimism and hardiness, and less ineffectiveness and interpersonal distrust) and better health status (e.g., greater perceived wellness, less perceived stress, and fewer symptoms of illness) in a sample of university students (N = 270). In Study 2, in which a sample of corporate employees (N = 160) was examined, self-leadership was significantly related to greater perceptions of work satisfaction, enhanced communication, quality management, effective work relationships, and in terms of health outcomes, greater perceived wellness and less work stress. Implications of the relationships between self-leadership and psychological, health, and work outcomes are discussed.

Stressful Experiences, Coping Strategies, and Predictors of Health-related Outcomes among Wives of Deployed Military Servicemen

A survey of military wives (N = 77) identifies their most stressful experiences, self-appraised control over these stressors, and coping strategies used. The authors examine two competing hypotheses: the goodness-of-fit hypothesis that the effects of problem-focused coping (PFC) and emotion-focused coping (EFC) strategies on distress are moderated by the appraised controllability of the stressor, and the main-effects hypothesis that PFC strategies are more effective than EFC strategies in reducing distress regardless of appraisal of controllability. Wives identified deployment of soldiers as their most stressful experience, and reported using PFC strategies more frequently than EFC strategies. EFC strategies were predictive of greater physical symptoms of illness, while PFC strategies were related to reduced physical symptoms of illness only when military wives’ perceived control of the situation was low. PFC strategies and controllability were significantly related to decreased depressive symptoms; EFC was marginally related to increased depressive symptoms, lending greater support to the main-effects hypothesis.

The Development and Validation of the Sense of Support Scale

Abstract Two studies were conducted to develop and validate the Sense of Support Scale (SSS). Study I, which consisted of scale development and an evaluation with a sample of corporate and university employees, supported the scales internal consistency and construct validity. Study 2, which was conducted with a sample of undergraduate students, was designed to evaluate the revised and shortened version of the SSS. The scale was found to be internally consistent and had a high test-retest reliability. Concurrent validity was supported by significant correlations to the Social Provisions Scale and the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List. Construct validity was supported by significant positive correlations to hardiness and approach-coping and significant negative correlations to avoidance-coping, stress, and symptoms of illness. The relationship between the SSS and symptoms of illness supported a main effect rather than a stress-buffering model. Implications for using the SSS to investigate the influences of social support on health are discussed.

Hardiness and Support at Work as Predictors of Work Stress and Job Satisfaction

Purpose. To test a theoretically and empirically based model linking potential protective resources (hardiness, coworker and supervisor support) to the outcomes of work stress and job satisfaction and replicating the relationship of work stress to job satisfaction while accounting for the potential influence of negative affectivity. Design. A cross-sectional research design using survey data collected from two convenience samples. Setting. Two worksites: (1) a high-tech company and (2) a government agency. Subjects. High-tech employees (N = 310; response rate, 73.8%) and government agency employees (N = 745; response rate, 49.7%). Measures. The Dispositional Resilience Scale measured hardiness and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule measured negative affectivity. Coworker and supervisor support were measured using the Coworker Support Scale and the Supervisor Support Scale, respectively. The Perceived Work Stress Scale measured work stress, and a single item from the Job Satisfaction Scale assessed overall job satisfaction. Results. A multiple-group path analysis examined the proposed model. Similar patterns of association were found for both samples and suggested a more parsimonious model without the path from negative affectivity to job satisfaction. The model supports the protective nature of hardiness and support at work with regard to work stress and job satisfaction. Conclusion. Explanations of relationships depicted in the model, practical implications for reducing work stress and enhancing job satisfaction, limitations and future directions are discussed.