Mary D. Fry

Differences in Imagery Content and Imagery Ability Between High and Low Confident Track and Field Athletes

The purpose of this research was to examine how high and low trait sport confident track and field athletes differed in their imagery content and imagery ability. NCAA Division I track and field athletes ( M age = 20.5 +/- 1.61 years; M = 7.15 +/- 3.3 years experience; N = 111, 44 males and 67 females) completed the following measures: Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI), Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and Movement Imagery Questionnaire - Revised (MIQ-R). Profile analyses revealed that high trait sport confident athletes utilized each category of imagery (Motivational General - Mastery, Motivational General - Arousal, Motivational Specific, Cognitive General, and Cognitive Specific) significantly more than low trait sport confident athletes. No significant differences emerged between the groups on the two imagery ability scales. The results suggest that the high confident athletes used more imagery, but they did not have higher imagery skills than low confident athletes.

Exploring the Contribution of the Caring Climate to the Youth Sport Experience

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between young athletes’ perceptions of the caring climate on their soccer teams to their enjoyment, attitudes and, behaviors toward their coach and teammates, and commitment to the sport. Athletes (N = 184) in a community soccer league volunteered to complete a survey. Results revealed that athletes who perceived a caring climate on their teams were significantly more likely to report higher enjoyment, more positive attitudes towards their coaches/teammates, greater commitment to soccer, and engage in more caring behaviors towards their coaches/teammates. Results suggest that a caring climate may benefit young athletes.

Cortisol and stress responses during a game and practice in female collegiate soccer players.

The purpose of this study was to compare the cortisol responses from a regular season game and a typical practice session in female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate soccer players. Eighteen players were assigned to 2 groups, 10 starters and 8 nonstarters, depending on their playing time. Salivary cortisol concentration, as well as competitive sport anxiety (somatic and cognitive anxiety, self-confidence), was monitored before and after 1 regular season game and 1 typical practice session. Although salivary cortisol levels increased postgame for both starters (+250%) and nonstarters (+140%), they increased to a greater extent for the starters. Practice salivary cortisol did not significantly change (p > 0.05). Cognitive and somatic anxiety was greater pre-and postgame when compared with the pre-and postpractice scores, respectively. These data clearly demonstrate the psychological and physiological differences between soccer competition and practice in collegiate women. It appears that both physiological and psychological variables combine to contribute to the large stress hormone response to an actual competitive game.

Anthropometric and performance variables discriminating elite American junior men weightlifters.

The purpose of this study is to identify physical and performance variables that discriminate elite American junior-aged men weightlifters from nonelite performers. Using a cross-sectional design, multiple discriminant analysis was used to determine field tests identifying elite male junior weightlifters. Young men who were participants (n = 115) at the Junior National and Junior Olympics Weightlifting Championships volunteered as subjects (mean ± SD age = 14.8 ± 2.3 years). Elite weightlifters (n = 20) were identified as the top 17.5% of national-level competitors when weightlifting performances were adjusted for body mass using the Sinclair equation. All other weightlifters were classified as nonelite (n = 95). Test batteries were performed immediately upon completion of a national-level weightlifting competition. Variables measured included easily-administered field tests of physical dimensions and body composition, muscular strength and power, flexibility, and gross motor control. The resulting regression equations correctly classified 84.35% of the weightlifters as elite or nonelite. Five variables significantly contributed to the discriminant analysis (Wilks Λ= 0.6637392, χ2= 44.880, df = 5, p < 0.0001, adjusted R2 = 0.67). Body mass index accounted for 23.13% of the total variance, followed by vertical jump (22.78%), relative fat (18.09%), grip strength (14.43%), and torso angle during an overhead squat (0.92%). The use of these 5 easily administered field tests is potentially useful as a screening tool for elite American junior men weightlifters.

Helping Members Commit to Exercise: Specific Strategies to Impact the Climate at Fitness Centers

Research has revealed that when individuals perceive a caring and task-involving climate in physical activity settings they are more likely to have positive experiences. The purpose of this paper is to provide fitness center employees with specific strategies for creating a caring, task-involving environment in their exercise settings. These strategies can help employees positively influence members’ overall exercise experiences. A variety of employee positions in fitness centers are targeted including front desk staff, membership, group fitness, personal trainers, supervisors and support staff.

Association Between Females’ Perceptions of College Aerobic Class Motivational Climates and Their Responses

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between female college students’ perceptions of the motivational climate in their aerobics classes to their adaptive exercise responses. Data were collected from university group exercise classes in spring 2008. The participants (N = 213) responded to a questionnaire measuring perceptions of the climate (i.e., caring, task-, and ego-involving), correlates of intrinsic motivation (i.e., interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, effort/importance, and tension/pressure), commitment to exercise, and reasons for exercising. Canonical correlation analyses revealed that participants who perceived a predominately caring, task-involving climate reported higher interest/enjoyment, perceived competence, effort/importance, and commitment to exercise, as well as lower tension/pressure. Further, those who perceived a high caring, task-involving, and low ego-involving climate were also more likely to report more health-related reasons for exercise versus appearance-focused reasons. Results suggested that important motivational benefits might exist when women perceive caring, task-involving climates in their aerobics class settings. Aerobics class instructors who intentionally create caring, task-involving climates may promote more adaptive motivational responses among their female participants.

Creating a Positive Climate for Young Athletes from Day 1

The purpose of this paper is to provide coaches strategies for creating a positive and supportive climate in sport. Strategies are provided that help coaches begin fostering motivation from the first day of meeting with their athletes. Specifically, strategies focus on helping athletes get to know each other better, gauge their success based on their effort and improvement, and bringing parents on board to be part of their childrens experience.

A developmental examination of children's understanding of task difficulty in the physical domain

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine childrens understanding of task difficulty in the physical domain using the developmental component of Nicholls’ theory of achievement motivation as a framework. Children (N = 144; 8 boys and 8 girls at each age from 5–13 years) enrolled in public schools in a Southern city were participants. They were shown one normative and two objective arrays with structured interview questions following each array. A Piagetian structural analysis of the childrens responses revealed the same three levels of understanding of task difficulty that Nicholls’ previously identified: egocentric, objective, and normative. Further, a nonparametric test of association between ordinal variables showed a significant positive relationship between childrens age and their levels of understanding of task difficulty. No significant gender differences emerged for childrens understanding of task difficulty. Childrens personal preferences for task difficulty levels (i.e., easy, moderate, difficult) were assessed for those who were identified as possessing a mature conception of task difficulty (i.e., rated at Level 3). Qualitative analysis revealed that approximately 30% of the children indicated that if given a choice they would prefer to play an easy game that did not provide an optimal challenge. These results provide partial evidence to support Nicholls’ (1989) claim that as children develop a mature understanding of ability some will be at risk of displaying maladaptive motivational patterns.

Planned Missing Data Designs for Spline Growth Models in Salivary Cortisol Research

Salivary cortisol is often used as an index of physiological and psychological stress in exercise science and psychoneuroendocrine research. A primary concern when designing research studies examining cortisol stems from the high cost of analysis. Planned missing data designs involve intentionally omitting a random subset of observations from data collection, reducing both the cost of data collection and participant burden. These designs have the potential to result in more efficient, cost-effective analyses with minimal power loss. Using salivary cortisol data from a previous study (Hogue, Fry, Fry, & Pressman, 2013), this article examines statistical power and estimated costs of six different planned missing data designs using growth curve modeling. Results indicate that using a planned missing data design would have provided the same results at a lower cost relative to the traditional, complete data analysis of salivary cortisol.

Strong Girls: A Physical-Activity/Life-Skills Intervention for Girls Transitioning to Junior High

The purpose of this study was to provide a physical-activity and life-skills/team-building intervention for elementary-grade girls who participated in a daily summer community camp. The intervention, called “Strong Girls,” included a group of approximately 20 sixth-grade girls. Strong Girls included two-hour sessions, twice a week for eight weeks. Each session, girls participated in physical activities, team building, and life-skills activities designed to enhance their fitness, positive thinking, confidence, and social skills. Leaders strived to foster a caring, supportive, and cooperative environment within the group. Assessment occurred via journal entries that both the Strong Girls participants and the daily summer community camp leaders completed after each session. The girls had very positive responses about their involvement in Strong Girls. Responses indicated that they valued the process of working together, demonstrated a positive perspective on session activities, and talked about strategies to make life more fun. Overall, the program gave adolescent girls opportunities to develop important life skills.