Mary G. Chapman

Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions

Accelerated biotic turnover during the Late Triassic has led to the perception of an end-Triassic mass extinction event, now regarded as one of the ‘‘big five’’ extinctions. Close examination of the fossil record reveals that many groups thought to be affected severely by this event, such as ammonoids, bivalves and conodonts, instead were in decline throughout the Late Triassic, and that other groups were relatively unaffected or subject to only regional effects. Explanations for the biotic turnover have included both gradualistic and catastrophic mechanisms. Regression during the Rhaetian, with consequent habitat loss, is compatible with the disappearance of some marine faunal groups, but may be regional, not global in scale, and cannot explain apparent synchronous decline in the terrestrial realm. Gradual, widespread aridification of the Pangaean supercontinent could explain a decline in terrestrial diversity during the Late Triassic. Although evidence for an impact precisely at the boundary is lacking, the presence of impact structures with Late Triassic ages suggests the possibility of bolide impact-induced environmental degradation prior to the end-Triassic. Widespread eruptions of flood basalts of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) were synchronous with or slightly postdate the system boundary; emissions of CO2 and SO2 during these eruptions were substantial, but the contradictory evidence for the environmental effects of outgassing of these lavas remains to be resolved. A substantial excursion in the marine carbon-isotope record of both carbonate and organic matter suggests a significant disturbance of the global carbon cycle at the system boundary. Release of methane hydrates from seafloor sediments is a possible cause for this isotope excursion, although the triggering mechanism and climatic effects of such a release remain uncertain. D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Interior trough deposits on Mars: Subice volcanoes?

Widespread, several-kilometer-thick successions of layered deposits occur as mounds that partly fill the troughs or chasmata that compose the Valles Marineris on Mars. Like terrestrial subice volcanoes, the layered deposits occur in a volcano-tectonic setting within basins that may have held ponded water or ice. On the basis of their dimensions, morphologies, and associated catastrophic floods and other geologic events as shown in Viking and new Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) data sets, we suggest that the interior deposits are volcanic in origin and possibly generated by subice eruptions. A tuya origin for the mounds can explain the lack of external sediment, mound heights that can rival the plateau, local flat-topped mesas, morphologically distinct mounds of different ages, horizontal to steep dips, fine-grained materials, indications of rare volcanic vents and lava flows, and spectral composition. The extremely diverse layering of west Candor Chasma and possible volcanic cones in Melas may have formed by related subaerial eruptions. Consistent with the suggestion that interior deposits are eroding out of the wall rock, some deposits could have been erupted from sites along the walls.

Overview of the Microscopic Imager Investigation during Spirit's first 450 sols in Gusev crater

The Microscopic Imager (MI) on the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit has returned images of Mars with higher resolution than any previous camera system, allowing detailed petrographic and sedimentological studies of the rocks and soils at the Gusev landing site. Designed to simulate a geologists hand lens, the MI is mounted on Spirits instrument arm and can resolve objects 0.1 mm in size or larger. This paper provides an overview of MI operations, data calibration, processing, and analysis of MI data returned during the first 450 sols (Mars days) of the Spirit landed mission. The primary goal of this paper is to facilitate further analyses of MI data by summarizing the methods used to acquire and process the data, the radiometric and geometric accuracy of MI data products, and the availability of archival products. In addition, scientific results of the MI investigation are summarized. MI observations show that poorly sorted soils are common in Gusev crater, although aeolian bedforms have well-sorted coarse sand grains on their surfaces. Abraded surfaces of plains rocks show igneous textures, light-toned veins or fracture-filling minerals, and discrete coatings. The rocks in the Columbia Hills have a wide variety of granular textures, consistent with volcaniclastic or impact origins. Case hardening and submillimeter veins observed in the rocks as well as soil crusts and cemented clods imply episodic subsurface aqueous fluid movement, which has altered multiple geologic units in the Columbia Hills. The MI also monitored Spirits solar panels and the magnets on the rovers deck.

Volcanism and Ice Interactions on Earth and Mars

When volcanoes and ice interact, many unique types of eruptions and geomorphic features result. Volcanism appears to occur on all planetary bodies, but of the inner solar system planets, ice is limited to Earth and Mars. Earth, the water planet, is covered by ice wherever the temperature is cold enough to freeze water for extended periods of time. Ice is found in sheets covering the Antarctic continent and Greenland, as glacial caps in high mountainous regions, as glaciers in polar and temperate regions, and as sea ice in the northern and southern oceans. With changes in climate, landmass, solar radiation, and Earth orbit, ice masses can contract or expand over great distances, as occurred during the Pleistocene Ice Age. The Earth is still in an ice age—at the beginning of the Cenozoic, 65 million years ago, our planet was ice-free. In fact, there is now so much ice that about 70% of the world’s total fresh water is contained within the Antarctic ice sheet.

The 1999 Marsokhod rover mission simulation at Silver Lake, California: Mission overview, data sets, and summary of results

We report on a field experiment held near Silver Lake playa in the Mojave Desert in February 1999 with the Marsokhod rover. The payload (Descent Imager, PanCam, Mini-TES, and Robotic Arm Camera), data volumes, and data transmission/receipt windows simulated those planned for the Mars Surveyor mission selected for 2001. A central mast with a pan and tilt platform at 150 cm height carried a high-resolution color stereo imager to simulate the PanCam and a visible/near-infrared fiberoptic spectrometer (operating range 0.35–2.5 μm). Monochrome stereo navigation cameras were mounted on the mast and the front and rear of the rover near the wheels. A field portable infrared spectroradiometer (operating range 8–14 μm) simulated the Mini-TES. A Robotic Arm Camera, capable of close-up color imaging at 23 μm/pixel resolution, was used in conjunction with the excavation of a trench into the subsurface. The science team was also provided with simulated images from the Mars Descent Imager and orbital panchromatic and multispectral imaging of the site obtained with the French SPOT, airborne Thermal Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, and Landsat Thematic Mapper instruments. Commands sequences were programmed and sent daily to the rover, and data returned were limited to 40 Mbits per communication cycle. During the simulated mission, 12 commands were uplinked to the rover, it traversed ∼90 m, six sites were analyzed, 11 samples were collected for laboratory analysis, and over 5 Gbits of data were collected. Twenty-two scientists, unfamiliar with the location of the field site, participated in the science mission from a variety of locations, accessing data via the World Wide Web. Remote science interpretations were compared with ground truth from the field and laboratory analysis of collected samples. Using this payload and mission approach, the science team synergistically interpreted orbital imaging and infrared spectroscopy, descent imaging, rover-based imaging, infrared spectroscopy, and microscopic imaging to deduce a consistent and largely correct interpretation of the geology, mineralogy, stratigraphy, and exobiology of the site. Use of imaging combined with infrared spectroscopy allowed source outcrops to be identified for local rocks on an alluvial fan. Different lithologies were distinguished both near the rover and at distances of hundreds of meters or more. Subtle differences such as a contact between dolomite and calcite were identified at a distance of 0.5 km. A biomarker for endolithic microbiota, a plausible life form to be found on Mars, was successfully identified. Microscopic imaging of soils extracted from the surface and subsurface allowed the mineralogy and fluvial history of the trench site to be deduced. The scientific productivity of this simulation shows that this payload and mission approach has high science value and would contribute substantially to achieving the goals of Mars exploration.

Layered, massive and thin sediments on Mars: possible Late Noachian to Late Amazonian tephra?

Abstract Data from instruments on the currently orbiting Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) suggest that as an alternative interpretation to lacustrine deposits, widespread sediments on Mars may be tephra deposits of variable age, formed in part by volcano-ice interactions. The materials are often associated with outcrops of mapped geological units that have each been previously interpreted as volcanic ash deposits with identified, but unconfirmed possible volcanic vents. Spectral investigation indicates that although some outcrops are basaltic, many show moderate to high concentrations of andesite, a composition at which large explosive eruptions may be possible. In addition, many outcrops are in areas suspected to be water/ice rich. On Earth, magma and groundwater can react to create violent explosive eruptions. Observations from MGS support a pyroclastic mechanism of deposition and show some morphologies consistent with volcano-ice interactions, including subaqueous eruptions. Perhaps MGS data are finally producing more definitive evidence of the widespread tephra that were predicted to be likely in the reduced atmospheric pressure of Mars.

Surface processes recorded by rocks and soils on Meridiani Planum, Mars: Microscopic Imager observations during Opportunity's first three extended missions

The Microscopic Imager (MI) on the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity has returned images of Mars with higher resolution than any previous camera system, allowing detailed petrographic and sedimentological studies of the rocks and soils at the Meridiani Planum landing site. Designed to simulate a geologists hand lens, the MI is mounted on Opportunitys instrument arm and can resolve objects 0.1 mm across or larger. This paper provides an overview of MI operations, data calibration, and analysis of MI data returned during the first 900 sols (Mars days) of the Opportunity landed mission. Analyses of Opportunity MI data have helped to resolve major questions about the origin of observed textures and features. These studies support eolian sediment transport, rather than impact surge processes, as the dominant depositional mechanism for Burns formation strata. MI stereo observations of a rock outcrop near the rim of Erebus Crater support the previous interpretation of similar sedimentary structures in Eagle Crater as being formed by surficial flow of liquid water. Well-sorted spherules dominate ripple surfaces on the Meridiani plains, and the size of spherules between ripples decreases by about 1 mm from north to south along Opportunitys traverse between Endurance and Erebus craters.

Sub-ice volcanoes and ancient oceans/lakes: A Martian challenge

Abstract New instruments on board the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft began providing accurate, high-resolution image and topography data from the planet in 1997. Though data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) are consistent with hypotheses that suggest large standing bodies of water/ice in the northern lowlands in the planets past history, Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) images acquired to test these hypotheses have provided negative or ambiguous results. In the absence of classic coastal features to test the paleo-ocean hypothesis, other indicators need to be examined. Tuyas and hyaloclastic ridges are sub-ice volcanoes of unique appearance that form in ponded water conditions on Earth. Features with similar characteristics occur on Mars. MOLA analyses of these Martian features provide estimates of the height of putative ice/water columns at the edge of the Utopia Planitia basin and within Ophir Chasma of Valles Marineris, and support the hypotheses of a northern ocean on Mars.

A migratory mantle plume on Venus: Implications for Earth?

A spatially fixed or at least internally rigid hotspot reference frame has been assumed for determining relative plate motions on Earth. Recent 1:5,000,000 scale mapping of Venus, a planet without terrestrial-style plate tectonics and ocean cover, reveals a systematic age and dimensional progression of corona-like arachnoids occurring in an uncinate chain. The nonrandom associations between arachnoids indicate they likely formed from a deep-seated mantle plume in a manner similar to terrestrial hotspot features. However, absence of expected convergent “plate” margin deformation suggests that the arachnoids are the surface expression of a migratory mantle plume beneath a stationary surface. If mantle plumes are not stationary on Venus, what if any are the implications for Earth?

Observation of the geology and geomorphology of the 1999 Marsokhod test site

The Marsokhod rover returned data from six stations that were used to decipher the geomorphology and geology of a region not previously visited by members of the geomorphology field team. Satellite images and simulated descent images provided information about the regional setting. The landing zone was on an alluvial apron flanking a mountain block to the west and a playa surface to the east. Rover color images, infrared spectra analysis of the mountains, and the apron surface provided insight into the rock composition of the nearby mountains. From the return data the geomorphology team interpreted the region to consist of compressionally deformed, ancient marine sediments and igneous rocks exposed by more recent extensional tectonics. Unconsolidated alluvial materials blanket the lower flanks of the mountains. An ancient shoreline cut into alluvial material marks a high stand of water during a past, wetter climate period. Playa sediments floor a present-day, seasonally, dry lake. Observations made by the rover using panoramic and close-up (hand specimens—scale) image data and color scene data confirmed the presence of boulders, cobbles, and fines of various provinces. Rover traverses to sites identified as geologically distinct, such as fan, channel, shoreline, and playa, provided useful clues to the geologic interpretations. Analysis of local rocks was given context only through comparison with distant geologic features. These results demonstrated the importance of a multifaceted approach to site interpretation through comparison of interpretations derived by differing geologic techniques.