Masamichi Ohkura

A high signal-to-noise Ca 2+ probe composed of a single green fluorescent protein

Recently, several groups have developed green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based Ca2+ probes. When applied in cells, however, these probes are difficult to use because of a low signal-to-noise ratio. Here we report the development of a high-affinity Ca2+ probe composed of a single GFP (named G-CaMP). G-CaMP showed an apparent Kd for Ca2+ of 235 nM. Association kinetics of Ca2+ binding were faster at higher Ca2+ concentrations, with time constants decreasing from 230 ms at 0.2 μM Ca2+ to 2.5 ms at 1 μM Ca2+. Dissociation kinetics (τ ∼200 ms) are independent of Ca2+ concentrations. In HEK-293 cells and mouse myotubes expressing G-CaMP, large fluorescent changes were observed in response to application of drugs or electrical stimulations. G-CaMP will be a useful tool for visualizing intracellular Ca2+ in living cells. Mutational analysis, together with previous structural information, suggests the residues that may alter the fluorescence of GFP.

Genetic visualization with an improved GCaMP calcium indicator reveals spatiotemporal activation of the spinal motor neurons in zebrafish

Animal behaviors are generated by well-coordinated activation of neural circuits. In zebrafish, embryos start to show spontaneous muscle contractions at 17 to 19 h postfertilization. To visualize how motor circuits in the spinal cord are activated during this behavior, we developed GCaMP-HS (GCaMP-hyper sensitive), an improved version of the genetically encoded calcium indicator GCaMP, and created transgenic zebrafish carrying the GCaMP-HS gene downstream of the Gal4-recognition sequence, UAS (upstream activation sequence). Then we performed a gene-trap screen and identified the SAIGFF213A transgenic fish that expressed Gal4FF, a modified version of Gal4, in a subset of spinal neurons including the caudal primary (CaP) motor neurons. We conducted calcium imaging using the SAIGFF213A; UAS:GCaMP-HS double transgenic embryos during the spontaneous contractions. We demonstrated periodic and synchronized activation of a set of ipsilateral motor neurons located on the right and left trunk in accordance with actual muscle movements. The synchronized activation of contralateral motor neurons occurred alternately with a regular interval. Furthermore, a detailed analysis revealed rostral-to-caudal propagation of activation of the ipsilateral motor neuron, which is similar to but much slower than the rostrocaudal delay observed during swimming in later stages. Our study thus demonstrated coordinated activities of the motor neurons during the first behavior in a vertebrate. We propose the GCaMP technology combined with the Gal4FF-UAS system is a powerful tool to study functional neural circuits in zebrafish.

Genetically encoded green fluorescent Ca2+ indicators with improved detectability for neuronal Ca2+ signals.

Imaging the activities of individual neurons with genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators (GECIs) is a promising method for understanding neuronal network functions. Here, we report GECIs with improved neuronal Ca2+ signal detectability, termed G-CaMP6 and G-CaMP8. Compared to a series of existing G-CaMPs, G-CaMP6 showed fairly high sensitivity and rapid kinetics, both of which are suitable properties for detecting subtle and fast neuronal activities. G-CaMP8 showed a greater signal (F max/F min = 38) than G-CaMP6 and demonstrated kinetics similar to those of G-CaMP6. Both GECIs could detect individual spikes from pyramidal neurons of cultured hippocampal slices or acute cortical slices with 100% detection rates, demonstrating their superior performance to existing GECIs. Because G-CaMP6 showed a higher sensitivity and brighter baseline fluorescence than G-CaMP8 in a cellular environment, we applied G-CaMP6 for Ca2+ imaging of dendritic spines, the putative postsynaptic sites. By expressing a G-CaMP6-actin fusion protein for the spines in hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons and electrically stimulating the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, which innervate CA3 pyramidal neurons, we found that sub-threshold stimulation triggered small Ca2+ responses in a limited number of spines with a low response rate in active spines, whereas supra-threshold stimulation triggered large fluorescence responses in virtually all of the spines with a 100% activity rate.

Real-Time Visualization of Neuronal Activity during Perception

To understand how the brain perceives the external world, it is desirable to observe neuronal activity in the brain in real time during perception. The zebrafish is a suitable model animal for fluorescence imaging studies to visualize neuronal activity because its body is transparent through the embryonic and larval stages. Imaging studies have been carried out to monitor neuronal activity in the larval spinal cord and brain using Ca(2+) indicator dyes and DNA-encoded Ca(2+) indicators, such as Cameleon, GFP-aequorin, and GCaMPs. However, temporal and spatial resolution and sensitivity of these tools are still limited, and imaging of brain activity during perception of a natural object has not yet been demonstrated. Here we demonstrate visualization of neuronal activity in the optic tectum of larval zebrafish by genetically expressing the new version of GCaMP. First, we demonstrate Ca(2+) transients in the tectum evoked by a moving spot on a display and identify direction-selective neurons. Second, we show tectal activity during perception of a natural object, a swimming paramecium, revealing a functional visuotopic map. Finally, we image the tectal responses of a free-swimming larval fish to a paramecium and thereby correlate neuronal activity in the brain with prey capture behavior.

Rational design of a high-affinity, fast, red calcium indicator R-CaMP2

Fluorescent Ca2+ reporters are widely used as readouts of neuronal activities. Here we designed R-CaMP2, a high-affinity red genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI) with a Hill coefficient near 1. Use of the calmodulin-binding sequence of CaMKK-α and CaMKK-β in lieu of an M13 sequence resulted in threefold faster rise and decay times of Ca2+ transients than R-CaMP1.07. These features allowed resolving single action potentials (APs) and recording fast AP trains up to 20–40 Hz in cortical slices. Somatic and synaptic activities of a cortical neuronal ensemble in vivo were imaged with similar efficacy as with previously reported sensitive green GECIs. Combining green and red GECIs, we successfully achieved dual-color monitoring of neuronal activities of distinct cell types, both in the mouse cortex and in freely moving Caenorhabditis elegans. Dual imaging using R-CaMP2 and green GECIs provides a powerful means to interrogate orthogonal and hierarchical neuronal ensembles in vivo.

Allogeneic transplantation of iPS cell-derived cardiomyocytes regenerates primate hearts

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) constitute a potential source of autologous patient-specific cardiomyocytes for cardiac repair, providing a major benefit over other sources of cells in terms of immune rejection. However, autologous transplantation has substantial challenges related to manufacturing and regulation. Although major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-matched allogeneic transplantation is a promising alternative strategy, few immunological studies have been carried out with iPSCs. Here we describe an allogeneic transplantation model established using the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis), the MHC structure of which is identical to that of humans. Fibroblast-derived iPSCs were generated from a MHC haplotype (HT4) homozygous animal and subsequently differentiated into cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs). Five HT4 heterozygous monkeys were subjected to myocardial infarction followed by direct intra-myocardial injection of iPSC-CMs. The grafted cardiomyocytes survived for 12 weeks with no evidence of immune rejection in monkeys treated with clinically relevant doses of methylprednisolone and tacrolimus, and showed electrical coupling with host cardiomyocytes as assessed by use of the fluorescent calcium indicator G-CaMP7.09. Additionally, transplantation of the iPSC-CMs improved cardiac contractile function at 4 and 12 weeks after transplantation; however, the incidence of ventricular tachycardia was transiently, but significantly, increased when compared to vehicle-treated controls. Collectively, our data demonstrate that allogeneic iPSC-CM transplantation is sufficient to regenerate the infarcted non-human primate heart; however, further research to control post-transplant arrhythmias is necessary.

Imaging intraorganellar Ca2+ at subcellular resolution using CEPIA

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria accumulate Ca2+ within their lumens to regulate numerous cell functions. However, determining the dynamics of intraorganellar Ca2+ has proven to be difficult. Here we describe a family of genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators, named calcium-measuring organelle-entrapped protein indicators (CEPIA), which can be utilized for intraorganellar Ca2+ imaging. CEPIA, which emit green, red or blue/green fluorescence, are engineered to bind Ca2+ at intraorganellar Ca2+ concentrations. They can be targeted to different organelles and may be used alongside other fluorescent molecular markers, expanding the range of cell functions that can be simultaneously analysed. The spatiotemporal resolution of CEPIA makes it possible to resolve Ca2+ import into individual mitochondria while simultaneously measuring ER and cytosolic Ca2+. We have used these imaging capabilities to reveal differential Ca2+ handling in individual mitochondria. CEPIA imaging is a useful new tool to further the understanding of organellar functions.

Activation of cerebellar parallel fibers monitored in transgenic mice expressing a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator protein

Genetically encoded fluorescent Ca2+ indicator proteins (FCIPs) are promising tools to study Ca2+ signaling in large assemblies of nerve cells. Currently, there are few examples of stable transgenic mouse lines that functionally express such sensors in well‐defined neuronal cell populations. Here we report the generation and characterization of transgenic mice expressing an FCIP under the 5′ regulatory sequences of the Kv3.1 potassium channel promoter. In the cerebellar cortex, expression was restricted to granule cells. We first demonstrated reliable measurements of Ca2+ transients from beams of parallel fibers and compared the FCIP signals with intrinsic autofluorescence signals. We demonstrate that, in a transgenic line that exhibits a high expression level of the FCIP, autofluorescence signals are negligible and stimulation‐induced fluorescence transients represent FCIP signals. Using frontal cerebellar slices we imaged antidromic activation of granule cells following electrical stimulation of parallel fibers and orthodromic activation of beams of parallel fibers following electrical stimulation of granule cells. We found that paired pulse‐induced presynaptic Ca2+ transients of parallel fibers are not affected by blockade of N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate receptors.

Local subplasma membrane Ca2+ signals detected by a tethered Ca2+ sensor.

Accumulating evidence indicates that plasma membrane (PM) microdomains and the subjacent “junctional” sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum (jS/ER) constitute specialized Ca2+ signaling complexes in many cell types. We examined the possibility that some Ca2+ signals arising in the junctional space between the PM and jS/ER may represent cross-talk between the PM and jS/ER. The Ca2+ sensor protein, GCaMP2, was targeted to different PM domains by constructing genes for fusion proteins with either the α1 or α2 isoform of the Na+ pump catalytic (α) subunit. These fusion proteins were expressed in primary cultured mouse brain astrocytes and arterial smooth muscle cells. Immunocytochemistry demonstrated that α2(f)GCaMP2, like native Na+ pumps with α2-subunits, sorted to PM domains that colocalized with subjacent S/ER; α1(f)GCaMP2, like Na+ pumps with α1-subunits, was more uniformly distributed. The GCaMP2 moieties in both constructs were tethered just beneath the PM. Both constructs detected global Ca2+ signals evoked by serotonin (in arterial smooth muscle cells) and ATP, and by store-operated Ca2+ channel-mediated Ca2+ entry after S/ER unloading with cyclopiazonic acid (in Ca2+-free medium). When cytosolic Ca2+ diffusion was markedly restricted with EGTA, however, only α2(f)GCaMP2 detected the local, store-operated Ca2+ channel-mediated Ca2+ entry signal. Thus, α1 Na+ pumps are apparently excluded from the PM microdomains occupied by α2 Na2+ pumps. The jS/ER and adjacent PM may communicate by Ca2+ signals that are confined to the tiny junctional space between the two membranes. Similar methods may be useful for studying localized Ca2+ signals in other subPM microdomains and signals associated with other organelles.

Calcium imaging reveals glial involvement in transcranial direct current stimulation-induced plasticity in mouse brain

Transcranical direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a treatment known to ameliorate various neurological conditions and enhance memory and cognition in humans. tDCS has gained traction for its potential therapeutic value; however, little is known about its mechanism of action. Using a transgenic mouse expressing G-CaMP7 in astrocytes and a subpopulation of excitatory neurons, we find that tDCS induces large-amplitude astrocytic Ca2+ surges across the entire cortex with no obvious changes in the local field potential. Moreover, sensory evoked cortical responses are enhanced after tDCS. These enhancements are dependent on the alpha-1 adrenergic receptor and are not observed in IP3R2 (inositol trisphosphate receptor type 2) knockout mice, in which astrocytic Ca2+ surges are absent. Together, we propose that tDCS changes the metaplasticity of the cortex through astrocytic Ca2+/IP3 signalling.