Masamitsu Ohta

Bending strength and toughness of heat-treated wood

The load-deflection curve for static bending and the force-time curve for impact bending of heat-treated wood were examined in detail. The effect of oxygen in air was also investigated. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) was heated for 0.5–16.0h at a temperature of 160°C in nitrogen gas or air. The dynamic Youngs modulus was measured by the free-free flexural vibration test, the static Youngs modulus and work needed for rupture by the static bending test, and the absorbed energy in impact bending by the impact bending test. The results obtained were as follows: (1) The static Youngs modulus increased at the initial stage of the heat treatment and decreased later. It decreased more in air than in nitrogen. (2) The bending strength increased at the initial stage of the heat treatment and decreased later. It decreased more in air than in nitrogen. (3) The work needed for rupture decreased steadily as the heating time increased. It decreased more in nitrogen than in air. It is thought that heat-treated wood was more brittle than untreated wood in the static bending test because W12 was reduced by the heat treatment. This means that the main factors contributing to the reduction of the work needed for rupture were viscosity and plasticity, not elasticity. (4) The absorbed energy in impact bending increased at the initial stage of the heat treatment and decreased later. It decreased more in air than in nitrogen. It was concluded that heat-treated wood became more brittle in the impact bending test becauseI12 andI23 were reduced by the heat treatment.

Applicability of the losipescu shear test on the measurement of the shear properties of wood

We examined the applicability of the Iosipescu shear test for measuring the shear properties of wood. Quarter-sawn board of sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) and shioji (Japanese ash,Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh. were used for the specimens. Iosipescu shear tests were conducted with two types of specimen whose longitudinal and radial directions coincided with the loading direction. The shear modulus, yield shear stress, and shear strength were obtained and were compared with those obtained by the torsion tests of rectangular bars. The results are summarized as follows: (1) The Iosipescu shear test is effective in measuring the shear modulus and the yield shear stress. (2) To measure the shear strength properly by the Iosipescu shear test, the configuration of specimen and the supporting condition should be examined in more in detail.

Vibrational properties of Sitka spruce heat-treated in nitrogen gas

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) wood was heated for 0.5–16.Oh at temperatures of 120°–200°C in nitrogen gas or air. The values for Youngs modulus, shear modulus, and loss tangent were measured by free-free flexural vibration tests. X-ray diffractometry was carried out to estimate the crystallinity index and crystallite width. The results obtained are as follows: (1) Density decreased at higher temperatures and longer heating times. The specific Youngs modulus, specific shear modulus, crystallinity index, and crystallite width increased during the initial stage and were constant after this stage at 120°C and 160°C, whereas they increased during the initial stage and decreased later when the temperature was high. Loss tangent in the longitudinal direction increased under all conditions, whereas that in the radial direction increased at 120°C and decreased at 160°C and 200°C. (2) From the relation between Youngs modulus and moisture content, it can be safely said that Youngs modulus is increased by the crystallization and the decrement in equilibrium moisture content, and that crystallization (rather than degradation) is predominant at the initial stage of the heat treatment, whereas the latter is predominant as the heating time increases. (3) It is implied that the specific Youngs modulus, specific shear modulus, crystallinity index, and crystallite width decreased more in air than in nitrogen gas because of oxidation in air.

Measurement of mode II fracture toughness of wood by the end-notched flexure test

We examined the applicability of end-notched flexure (ENF) tests for measuring the mode II fracture toughness of wood. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg.) was used for the specimens. The fracture toughness at the beginning of crack propagationGIIc and that during crack propagationGIIR were calculated from the loadloading point compliance and load-crack shear displacement (CSD) relations. The obtained results were compared with each other, and the validity of measurement methods were examined. The results are summarized as follows: (1) The value ofGIIc increased with the increase in initial crack length. When measuringGIIc by ENF tests, we should be aware of the dependence ofGIIc on the initial crack length. (2) The value ofGIIR initially increased with the crack length, and it reached a constant value. (3) Measurement of the CSD is recommended when obtainingGIIR because the crack length, which has a great influence on theGIIR calculation, is implicitly included in the CSD. (4) We found that the crack length during its propagation should be evaluated by the final crack length.

Estimation of the shear strength of wood by uniaxial-tension tests of off-axis specimens

To determine shear strength we conducted uniaxial-tension tests of off-axis specimens and examined the proper off-axis angles. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) and katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sieb. and Zucc.) were used for the studies. Uniaxial tension tests of the specimens with various off-axis angles were conducted, and the shear stress at failure was obtained. Independent of the tension tests, torsion tests were conducted, and the shear strengths were obtained. Comparing the data of the uniaxial tension and torsion tests, we examined the validity of estimating shear strength by the off-axis tension test. The shear strengths obtained from the tension tests coincided well with those measured by the torsion tests when the specimen had an off-axis angle of 15°–30°. In this off-axis angle range, the tensile stress perpendicular to the grain might have a serious influence on the shear strength, and we thought that the shear strength predicted by uniaxial tension tests should be treated as an approximate value despite the simplicity of the tension test. Other test methods should be adopted to obtain the precise shear strength of wood.

Measurement of the shear modulus of wood by static bending tests

When measuring the shear modulus of wood by static bending tests, the basic theory is dependent on Timoshenkos bending theory. The shear modulus obtained by static bending is a much smaller value than that derived by other methods. We examined the applicability of Timoshenkos theory and propose an empirical equation that can derive the shear modulus properly. Three softwoods and three hardwoods were used for the tests. First, the Youngs modulus and shear modulus were measured by free-free flexural vibration tests. Then the three-point static bending tests were undertaken, varying the depth/span ratios. Additionally, the bending tests were simulated by the finite element method (FEM). The shear moduli obtained by these methods were then compared. The deflection behaviors in static bending were not expressed by the original Timoshenko bending theory because of the stress distortion near the loading point. Based on the experimental results and numerical calculations, we modified the original Timoshenko bending equation. When using our modified equation the stress concentration must be carefully taken into account.

Variability of fracture toughness by the crack tip position in an annual ring of coniferous wood

The effects of the location of the crack tip in an annual ring and the direction of crack propagation on the fracture toughness of the TR crack propagation system of coniferous wood (T, direction normal to the notch plane; R, propagation direction) were analyzed by the finite element method in regard of the changes in elastic modulus and strength within an annual ring. The critical point of the fracture was defined as the state where the stress of a square element (0.125 × 0.125 mm) in contact with the crack tip equals the tensile strength. The distribution of specific gravity was measured by soft X-ray densitometry. The elastic moduli in the T and R directions were estimated by the sound velocity. The tensile strengths in the T and R directions were measured by the tensile test using small specimens of l mm span length. Regarding the variability of fracture toughness (KIC), the experimental and calculated results had the same tendency. Therefore, it was concluded that the variability ofKIC is caused by the (1) heterogeneity of the elastic modulus and strength within an annual ring; and (2) changes in the degree of stress concentration at the crack tips, according to the direction of crack propagation.

Hardness distribution on wood surface

For better understanding wood hardness, we developed a new hand-operated hardness tester that works with Brinells method. With this tester we investigated the hardness distribution of wood minutely using a 2mm diameter ball tip. The following results were obtained: (1) On preliminary examination with medium-density fiberboard, we found that the value of Brinells hardness decreased with the increase in the tip balls diameter but that it was almost constant with the indenting velocity. (2) By using a small diameter tip, the difference of the hardness became clearer between earlywood and latewood. (3) With radial and tangential sections, we obtained hardness distribution patterns similar to those of wood grain. It seems that the hardness distribution reflects the distribution of density on wood surfaces.

Vibrational properties of heat-treated green wood

To investigate the influence of water on heat treatment, green wood was heat-treated. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) with about 60% moisture content (MC) was used. Youngs modulus and loss tangent were measured by the free-free flexural vibration test. The specimens were heated in nitrogen at 160°C for 0.5h. The results were as follows. (1) Recognizing that the effects of heat treatment are mild and that the same specimens cannot be used for both heat treatment and as controls, it was necessary to investigate the effects of the heat treatment based on the variations of properties in the whole of the test lumber. (2) Youngs modulus increased and the loss tangent decreased due to heat treatment. When the vibrational properties were measured at various MCs, the MCs at the maximum value of Youngs modulus and the minimum value of the loss tangent were lower in heat-treated specimens than in controls. The effects of heat treatment in green wood were similar to those in air-dried wood. (3) The loss tangents of heat-treated specimens were smaller than those of controls at about 0% MC but were larger than those of controls at about 10% MC. We thought that this resulted from the decreased MC at the minimum loss tangent after the heat treatment mentioned above. (4) The properties measured at several MCs were more useful than those at only one moisture content for investigating the effects of heat treatment.

Accuracy of shear properties of wood obtained by simplified Iosipescu shear test

We examined the accuracy of the shear properties of wood by the Iosipescu shear test using specimens whose shape was simplified. Quartersawn boards of sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) and shioji (Japanese ash,Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh.) were used. Two types of specimen for the Iosipescu shear test were compared: a “standard specimen” whose notch angle is 90° and a “keyhole type specimen”, which is more easily prepared than the standard type. The shear modulus, yield shear stress, and failure shear stress of the keyhole-type specimen were compared to those of the standard specimen. Shear stress analysis was conducted using the finite element method (FEM). The results obtained were as follows: (1) The failure pattern obtained by the simplified Iosipescu shear test was similar to that seen with the standard Iosipescu shear test. (2) The shear modulus, yield stress, and failure stress obtained by the simplified Iosipescu shear test coincided with those by the standard Iosipescu shear test. (3) The principal strain angle and principal stress angle of the simplified Iosipescu shear test were about 45°. (4) It is recognized that pure stress is applied to the strain-gauge regions in the simplified Iosipescu shear test, and it is expected that the shear properties are independent of the notch angle.