Masato Kinoshita

Efficient Targeted Mutagenesis in Medaka Using Custom-Designed Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases

Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) have become powerful tools for targeted genome editing. Here we demonstrate efficient targeted mutagenesis in medaka (Oryzias latipes), which serves as an excellent vertebrate model for genetics and genomics. We designed and constructed a pair of TALENs targeting the medaka DJ-1 gene, a homolog of human DJ-1 (PARK7). These TALENs induced a number of insertions and deletions in the injected embryos with extremely high efficiency. This induction of mutations occurred in a dose-dependent manner. All screened G0 fish injected with the TALENs transmitted the TALEN-induced mutations to the next generation with high efficiency (44–100%). We also confirmed that these TALENs induced site-specific mutations because none of the mutations were found at potential off-target sites. In addition, the DJ-1 protein was lost in DJ-1Δ7/Δ7 fish that carried a TALEN-induced frameshift mutation in both alleles. We also investigated the effect of the N- and C-terminal regions of the transcription activator-like (TAL) effector domain on the gene-disrupting activity of DJ1-TALENs and found that 287 amino acids at the N terminus and 63 amino acids at the C terminus of the TAL domain exhibited the highest disrupting activity in the injected embryos. Our results suggest that TALENs enable us to rapidly and efficiently establish knockout medaka strains. This is the first report of targeted mutagenesis in medaka using TALENs. The TALEN technology will expand the potential of medaka as a model system for genetics and genomics.

Targeted mutagenesis using CRISPR/Cas system in medaka

ABSTRACT Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) system-based RNA-guided endonuclease (RGEN) has recently emerged as a simple and efficient tool for targeted genome editing. In this study, we showed successful targeted mutagenesis using RGENs in medaka, Oryzias latipes. Somatic and heritable mutations were induced with high efficiency at the targeted genomic sequence on the DJ-1 gene in embryos that had been injected with the single guide RNA (sgRNA) transcribed by a T7 promoter and capped RNA encoding a Cas9 nuclease. The sgRNAs that were designed for the target genomic sequences without the 5′ end of GG required by the T7 promoter induced the targeted mutations. This suggests that the RGEN can target any sequence adjacent to an NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence, which occurs once every 8u2005bp. The off-target alterations at 2 genomic loci harboring double mismatches in the 18-bp targeting sequences were induced in the RGEN-injected embryos. However, we also found that the off-target effects could be reduced by lower dosages of sgRNA. Taken together, our results suggest that CRISPR/Cas-mediated RGENs may be an efficient and flexible tool for genome editing in medaka.

Trunk exoskeleton in teleosts is mesodermal in origin

The vertebrate mineralized skeleton is known to have first emerged as an exoskeleton that extensively covered the fossil jawless fish. The evolutionary origin of this exoskeleton has long been attributed to the emergence of the neural crest, but experimental evaluation for this is still poor. Here we determine the embryonic origin of scales and fin rays of medaka (teleost trunk exoskeletons) by applying long-term cell labelling methods, and demonstrate that both tissues are mesodermal in origin. Neural crest cells, however, fail to contribute to these tissues. This result suggests that the trunk neural crest has no skeletogenic capability in fish, instead highlighting the dominant role of the mesoderm in the evolution of the trunk skeleton. This further implies that the role of the neural crest in skeletogenesis has been predominant in the cephalic region from the early stage of vertebrate evolution.

Design, evaluation, and screening methods for efficient targeted mutagenesis with transcription activator‐like effector nucleases in medaka

Genome editing using engineered nucleases such as transcription activator‐like effector nucleases (TALENs) has become a powerful technology for reverse genetics. In this study, we have described efficient detection methods for TALEN‐induced mutations at endogenous loci and presented guidelines of TALEN design for efficient targeted mutagenesis in medaka, Oryzias latipes. We performed a heteroduplex mobility assay (HMA) using an automated microchip electrophoresis system, which is a simple and high‐throughput method for evaluation of in vivo activity of TALENs and for genotyping mutant fish of F1 or later generations. We found that a specific pattern of mutations is dominant for TALENs harboring several base pairs of homologous sequences in target sequence. Furthermore, we found that a 5′ T, upstream of each TALEN‐binding sequence, is not essential for genomic DNA cleavage. Our findings provide information that expands the potential of TALENs and other engineered nucleases as tools for targeted genome editing in a wide range of organisms, including medaka.

Targeted disruption of exogenous EGFP gene in medaka using zinc-finger nucleases.

Zinc‐finger nucleases (ZFNs) are artificial enzymes that create site‐specific double‐strand breaks and thereby induce targeted genome editing. Here, we demonstrated successful gene disruption in somatic and germ cells of medaka (Oryzias latipes) using ZFN to target exogenous EGFP genes. Embryos that were injected with an RNA sequence pair coding for ZFNs showed mosaic loss of green fluorescent protein fluorescence in skeletal muscle. A number of mutations that included both deletions and insertions were identified within the ZFN target site in each embryo, whereas no mutations were found at the non‐targeted sites. In addition, ZFN‐induced mutations were introduced in germ cells and efficiently transmitted to the next generation. The mutation frequency varied (6–100%) in the germ cells from each founder, and a founder carried more than two types of mutation in germ cells. Our results have introduced the possibility of targeted gene disruption and reverse genetics in medaka.

Uptake, excretion and toxicity of nano-sized latex particles on medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos and larvae.

Nanoparticles are particles with diameters of 100 nm or less. As the applications of these particles have increased in recent years, their potential impact on the physiology of humans and animals has also increased. However, little is known regarding the effect of nanoparticles on the physiology of aquatic organisms. In this study, we investigated the effect of nano-sized, fluorescent, latex particles on the freshwater fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes). Medakas were exposed to four different types of fluorescent latex particles and the uptake, excretion, and the effect of nanoparticle accumulation on survival rate in medaka larvae were examined. These are fluorescent latex particles, which are non-functionalized 50 and 500 nm in diameter and carboxyl-group functionalized 50 and 500 nm in diameter. Fluorescence intensity in fish embryos exposed to non-functionalized and carboxyl-group functionalized particles measuring 50 nm in diameter (Particle 50 nm and Particle c50 nm) was markedly higher compared to when embryos were exposed to particles measuring 500 nm in diameter (Particle 500 nm and Particle c500 nm). Moreover, the excretion of nano-sized particles (Particle 50 and Particle c50 nm) from embryos was considerably slow, compared to larger particles (Particle 500 and Particle c500 nm). In addition, the survival rate of larvae exposed to nano-sized particles in small cups was significantly lower than the survival rates of fish maintained in larger containers. The findings suggested that although the nano-sized fluorescent latex particles were not intrinsically toxic, a synergistic toxic effect arose in combination with other factors, which is not favorable for fish larvae.

Viable Neuronopathic Gaucher Disease Model in Medaka (Oryzias latipes) Displays Axonal Accumulation of Alpha-Synuclein.

Homozygous mutations in the glucocerebrosidase (GBA) gene result in Gaucher disease (GD), the most common lysosomal storage disease. Recent genetic studies have revealed that GBA mutations confer a strong risk for sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). To investigate how GBA mutations cause PD, we generated GBA nonsense mutant (GBA-/-) medaka that are completely deficient in glucocerebrosidase (GCase) activity. In contrast to the perinatal death in humans and mice lacking GCase activity, GBA-/- medaka survived for months, enabling analysis of the pathological progression. GBA-/- medaka displayed the pathological phenotypes resembling human neuronopathic GD including infiltration of Gaucher cell-like cells into the brains, progressive neuronal loss, and microgliosis. Detailed pathological findings represented lysosomal abnormalities in neurons and alpha-synuclein (α-syn) accumulation in axonal swellings containing autophagosomes. Unexpectedly, disruption of α-syn did not improve the life span, formation of axonal swellings, neuronal loss, or neuroinflammation in GBA-/- medaka. Taken together, the present study revealed GBA-/- medaka as a novel neuronopathic GD model, the pahological mechanisms of α-syn accumulation caused by GCase deficiency, and the minimal contribution of α-syn to the pathogenesis of neuronopathic GD.

Leucophores are similar to xanthophores in their specification and differentiation processes in medaka

Significance Body color plays an important role in the diversity and speciation of vertebrates. In this paper, we revealed that three loci in medaka, leucophore free (lf), lf-2, and white leucophore, which affect leucophores and xanthophores, encoded solute carrier family 2, member 15b (slc2a15b), paired box gene 7a (pax7a), and solute carrier family 2 facilitated glucose transporter, member 11b (slc2a11b), respectively. The pax7 is important transcriptional factor for xanthophore development in zebrafish. The function of the two solute carrier family (SLC) genes was unknown. We show that the presence of the SLCs was coupled with the presence of xanthophores in vertebrates. The results suggest that leucophores are similar to xanthophores in their specification and differentiation process, and SLCs contribute to the diversification of hues in the pigment cells in vertebrates. Animal body color is generated primarily by neural crest-derived pigment cells in the skin. Mammals and birds have only melanocytes on the surface of their bodies; however, fish have a variety of pigment cell types or chromatophores, including melanophores, xanthophores, and iridophores. The medaka has a unique chromatophore type called the leucophore. The genetic basis of chromatophore diversity remains poorly understood. Here, we report that three loci in medaka, namely, leucophore free (lf), lf-2, and white leucophore (wl), which affect leucophore and xanthophore differentiation, encode solute carrier family 2, member 15b (slc2a15b), paired box gene 7a (pax7a), and solute carrier family 2 facilitated glucose transporter, member 11b (slc2a11b), respectively. Because lf-2, a loss-of-function mutant for pax7a, causes defects in the formation of xanthophore and leucophore precursor cells, pax7a is critical for the development of the chromatophores. This genetic evidence implies that leucophores are similar to xanthophores, although it was previously thought that leucophores were related to iridophores, as these chromatophores have purine-dependent light reflection. Our identification of slc2a15b and slc2a11b as genes critical for the differentiation of leucophores and xanthophores in medaka led to a further finding that the existence of these two genes in the genome coincides with the presence of xanthophores in nonmammalian vertebrates: birds have yellow-pigmented irises with xanthophore-like intracellular organelles. Our findings provide clues for revealing diverse evolutionary mechanisms of pigment cell formation in animals.

An Essential Role of the Arginine Vasotocin System in Mate-Guarding Behaviors in Triadic Relationships of Medaka Fish (Oryzias latipes)

To increase individual male fitness, males of various species remain near a (potential) mating partner and repel their rivals (mate-guarding). Mate-guarding is assumed to be mediated by two different types of motivation: sexual motivation toward the opposite sex and competitive motivation toward the same sex. The genetic/molecular mechanisms underlying how mate presence affects male competitive motivation in a triadic relationship has remained largely unknown. Here we showed that male medaka fish prominently exhibit mate-guarding behavior. The presence of a female robustly triggers male-male competition for the female in a triadic relationship (2 males and 1 female). The male-male competition resulted in one male occupying a dominant position near the female while interfering with the other males approach of the female. Paternity testing revealed that the dominant male had a significantly higher mating success rate than the other male in a triadic relationship. We next generated medaka mutants of arginine-vasotocin (avt) and its receptors (V1a1, V1a2) and revealed that two genes, avt and V1a2, are required for normal mate-guarding behavior. In addition, behavioral analysis of courtship behaviors in a dyadic relationship and aggressive behaviors within a male group revealed that avt mutant males displayed decreased sexual motivation but showed normal aggression. In contrast, heterozygote V1a2 mutant males displayed decreased aggression, but normal mate-guarding and courtship behavior. Thus, impaired mate-guarding in avt and V1a2 homozygote mutants may be due to the loss of sexual motivation toward the opposite sex, and not to the loss of competitive motivation toward rival males. The different behavioral phenotypes between avt, V1a2 heterozygote, and V1a2 homozygote mutants suggest that there are redundant systems to activate V1a2 and that endogenous ligands activating the receptor may differ according to the social context.

Chronic fluoxetine treatment induces anxiolytic responses and altered social behaviors in medaka, Oryzias latipes.

Medaka (Oryzias latipes) is a small freshwater teleost that is an emerging model system for neurobehavioral research and toxicological testing. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class of antidepressants such as fluoxetine is one of the widely prescribed drugs, but little is known about the effects of these drugs on medaka behaviors. To assess the behavioral effects of fluoxetine, we chronically administrated fluoxetine to medaka adult fish and analyzed the anxiety-related and social behaviors using five behavioral paradigms (diving, open-field, light-dark transition, mirror-biting, and social interaction) with an automated behavioral testing system. Fish chronically treated with fluoxetine exhibited anxiolytic responses such as an overall increased time spent in the top area in the diving test and an increased time spent in center area in the open-field test. Analysis of socially evoked behavior showed that chronic fluoxetine administration decreased the number of mirror biting times in the mirror-biting test and increased latency to first contact in the social interaction test. Additionally, chronic fluoxetine administration reduced the horizontal locomotor activity in the open-field test but not the vertical activity in the diving test. These investigations are mostly consistent with previous reports in the other teleost species and rodent models. These results indicate that behavioral assessment in medaka adult fish will become useful for screening of effects of pharmaceutical and toxicological compounds in animal behaviors.