Masoud Rahman

Therapeutic Benefits from Nanoparticles: The Potential Significance of Nanoscience in Diseases with Compromise to the Blood Brain Barrier

of Nanoscience in Diseases with Compromise to the Blood Brain Barrier Silke Krol,*,† Richard Macrez,‡,§ Fabian Docagne,‡ Gilles Defer,‡,§ Sophie Laurent, Masoud Rahman, Mohammad J. Hajipour, Patrick G. Kehoe,* and Morteza Mahmoudi* †Fondazione IRCCS Institute of Neurology “Carlo Besta”, Milan, Italy ‡Inserm U919, University Caen Basse Normandie, Serine Proteases and Pathophysiology of the Neurovascular Unit, GIP CYCERON, F-14074 Caen, France Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Caen, Caen, France Department of General, Organic, and Biomedical Chemistry, NMR and Molecular Imaging Laboratory, University of Mons, Avenue Maistriau, 19, B-7000 Mons, Belgium Laboratory of NanoBio Interactions (www.biospion.com), Department of Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol, John James Laboratories, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol, U.K. Nanotechnology Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Current address: School of Chemical Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States

Protein-Nanoparticle Interactions

In the recent decade, the fabrication of nanoparticles and exploration of their properties have attracted the attention of all branches of science such as physicists, chemists, biologists, engineers, and even medical doctors. Interests for nanoparticles arise from the fact that their mechanical, chemical, electrical, optical, magnetic, electro-optical, and magneto-optical properties of these nanoparticles are completely different from their bulk properties and the predetermined differences are depended on the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles. There are numerous areas where nanoparticles are of scientific and technological interest, specifically for medical community, where the synthetic and biologic worlds come together and lead to an important concern for design of safe nano-biomaterials. In this chapter, we review and discuss the major biomedical applications of nanoparticles. 1.1 Nanoscience in Medicine Nanomedicine is the application of nanosciences to health and exploits the physical, chemical, and biological properties of nanomaterials. The advent of nanoscience and nanotechnologies is shaping the face of industrial production and economics. As a matter of fact, nano-based products now include electronic components, paint, sports equipment, fabrics, sunscreens, and other cosmetics [1]. However, the most exciting nano-innovations reside in the conception of new medical products such as heart valves, drug-delivery systems, and imaging techniques [1], which will surely obliterate the long-established boundaries amidst chemistry, physics, and biology. It is anticipated that nanotechnology will have substantial economic impacts by encouraging productivity and competitiveness, converging different disciplines of science and technologies, and stimulating education and human development [2]. Experts predict market growth to hundreds of billions of dollars in the next decade. The worldwide market for products exploiting nanotechnology reached M. Rahman et al., Protein-Nanoparticle Interactions, Springer Series in Biophysics 15, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-37555-2_1,

Nanoparticle and Protein Corona

Nanoparticles and other nanomaterials are increasingly considered for use in biomedical applications such as imaging, drug delivery, and hyperthermic therapies. Thus, understanding the interaction of nanomaterials with biological systems becomes key for their safe and efficient application. It is increasingly being accepted that the surface of nanomaterials would be covered by protein corona upon their entrance to the biological medium. The biological medium will then see the achieved modified surface of nanomaterials, and therefore further cellular/tissue responses depend on the composition of corona. In this chapter, we describe the corona variations according to the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials (e.g., size, shape, surface charge, surface functional groups, and hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity). Besides the nanomaterials’ effects, the role of environment factors, such as protein source and slight temperature variations, is discussed in details.

Interaction of stable colloidal nanoparticles with cellular membranes

Due to their ultra-small size, inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) have distinct properties compared to the bulk form. The unique characteristics of NPs are broadly exploited in biomedical sciences in order to develop various methods of targeted drug delivery, novel biosensors and new therapeutic pathways. However, relatively little is known in the negotiation of NPs with complex biological environments. Cell membranes (CMs) in eukaryotes have dynamic structures, which is a key property for cellular responses to NPs. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of various interactions between advanced types of NPs and CMs.

Nanostructures: a platform for brain repair and augmentation

Nanoscale structures have been at the core of research efforts dealing with integration of nanotechnology into novel electronic devices for the last decade. Because the size of nanomaterials is of the same order of magnitude as biomolecules, these materials are valuable tools for nanoscale manipulation in a broad range of neurobiological systems. For instance, the unique electrical and optical properties of nanowires, nanotubes, and nanocables with vertical orientation, assembled in nanoscale arrays, have been used in many device applications such as sensors that hold the potential to augment brain functions. However, the challenge in creating nanowires/nanotubes or nanocables array-based sensors lies in making individual electrical connections fitting both the features of the brain and of the nanostructures. This review discusses two of the most important applications of nanostructures in neuroscience. First, the current approaches to create nanowires and nanocable structures are reviewed to critically evaluate their potential for developing unique nanostructure based sensors to improve recording and device performance to reduce noise and the detrimental effect of the interface on the tissue. Second, the implementation of nanomaterials in neurobiological and medical applications will be considered from the brain augmentation perspective. Novel applications for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases such as multiple sclerosis, meningitis, stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimers disease, schizophrenia, and autism will be considered. Because the blood brain barrier (BBB) has a defensive mechanism in preventing nanomaterials arrival to the brain, various strategies to help them to pass through the BBB will be discussed. Finally, the implementation of nanomaterials in neurobiological applications is addressed from the brain repair/augmentation perspective. These nanostructures at the interface between nanotechnology and neuroscience will play a pivotal role not only in addressing the multitude of brain disorders but also to repair or augment brain functions.

Template-based syntheses for shape controlled nanostructures

A variety of nanostructured materials are produced through template-based synthesis methods, including zero-dimensional, one-dimensional, and two-dimensional structures. These span different forms such as nanoparticles, nanowires, nanotubes, nanoflakes, and nanosheets. Many physical characteristics of these materials such as the shape and size can be finely controlled through template selection and as a result, their properties as well. Reviewed here are several examples of these nanomaterials, with emphasis specifically on the templates and synthesis routes used to produce the final nanostructures. In the first section, the templates have been discussed while in the second section, their corresponding synthesis methods have been briefly reviewed, and lastly in the third section, applications of the materials themselves are highlighted. Some examples of the templates frequently encountered are organic structure directing agents, surfactants, polymers, carbon frameworks, colloidal sol-gels, inorganic frameworks, and nanoporous membranes. Synthesis methods that adopt these templates include emulsion-based routes and template-filling approaches, such as self-assembly, electrodeposition, electroless deposition, vapor deposition, and other methods including layer-by-layer and lithography. Template-based synthesized nanomaterials are frequently encountered in select fields such as solar energy, thermoelectric materials, catalysis, biomedical applications, and magnetowetting of surfaces.

Hybrid response surface methodology-genetic algorithm optimization of ultrasound-assisted transesterification of waste oil catalysed by immobilized lipase on mesoporous silica/iron oxide magnetic core-shell nanoparticles

The production of biodiesel by transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) to partially substitute petroleum diesel is one of the measures for solving the twin problems of environment pollution and energy demand. An environmentally benign process for the enzymatic transesterification using immobilized lipase has attracted considerable attention for biodiesel production. Here, a superparamagnetic, high surface area substrate for lipase immobilization is evaluated. These immobilization substrates are composed of mesoporous silica/superparamagnetic iron oxide core-shell nanoparticles. The effects of methanol ratio to WCO, lipase concentration, water content and reaction time on the synthesis of biodiesel were analysed by utilizing the response surface methodology (RSM). A quadratic response surface equation for calculating fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) content as the objective function was established based on experimental data obtained in accordance with the central composite design. The RSM-based model was then used as the fitness function for genetic algorithm (GA) to optimize its input space. Hybrid RSM-GA predicted the maximum FAME content (91%) at the optimum level of medium variables: methanol ratio to WCO, 4.34; lipase content, 43.6%; water content, 10.22%; and reaction time, 6 h. Moreover, the immobilized lipase could be used for four times without considerable loss of the activity.

Protein Corona: Applications and Challenges

The protein corona introduces new unexpected applications and shortcomings for the nanoparticles. For instance, it is now well recognized that the protein coating reduces the targeting capability of surface-engineered nanoparticles by screening the active sites of the targeting ligands. Therefore, in this chapter, we will review the advantages and disadvantages of the protein-nanoparticle interaction with the correspondent biological impact. In addition, broad overview of current available data of both in vitro and in vivo protein-nanoparticle interactions is provided.

Analytical Methods for Corona Evaluations

In order to have deep understanding on the nature and composition of the formed protein corona, one should have adequate information on the available characterization techniques. In this chapter, comprehensive descriptions on the protein corona evaluation methods (e.g., spectroscopy methods (UV/Vis, Raman, fluorescence, mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, etc.), dynamic light scattering, circular dichroism, differential centrifugal sedimentation, scanning and transmission electron microscopies, X-ray crystallography, chromatography, etc.) together with their limitations are provided.

Disease specific protein corona

It is now well accepted that upon their entrance into the biological environments, the surface of nanomaterials would be covered by various biomacromolecules (e.g., proteins and lipids). The absorption of these biomolecules, so called ‘protein corona’, onto the surface of (nano)biomaterials confers them a new ‘biological identity’. Although the formation of protein coronas on the surface of nanoparticles has been widely investigated, there are few reports on the effect of various diseases on the biological identity of nanoparticles. As the type of diseases may tremendously changes the composition of the protein source (e.g., human plasma/serum), one can expect that amount and composition of associated proteins in the corona composition may be varied, in disease type manner. Here, we show that corona coated silica and polystyrene nanoparticles (after interaction with in the plasma of the healthy individuals) could induce unfolding of fibrinogen, which promotes release of the inflammatory cytokines. However, no considerable releases of inflammatory cytokines were observed for corona coated graphene sheets. In contrast, the obtained corona coated silica and polystyrene nanoparticles from the hypofibrinogenemia patients could not induce inflammatory cytokine release where graphene sheets do. Therefore, one can expect that disease-specific protein coronas can provide a novel approach for applying nanomedicine to personalized medicine, improving diagnosis and treatment of different diseases tailored to the specific conditions and circumstances.