Mathias A. S. Hass

The Structure of the Cytochrome P450cam-Putidaredoxin Complex Determined by Paramagnetic NMR Spectroscopy and Crystallography.

Cytochrome P450cam catalyzes the hydroxylation of camphor in a complex process involving two electron transfers (ETs) from the iron-sulfur protein putidaredoxin. The enzymatic control of the successive steps of catalysis is critical for a highly efficient reaction. The injection of the successive electrons is part of the control system. To understand the molecular interactions between putidaredoxin and cytochrome P450cam, we determined the structure of the complex both in solution and in the crystal state. Paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy using lanthanide tags yielded 446 structural restraints that were used to determine the solution structure. An ensemble of 10 structures with an RMSD of 1.3Å was obtained. The crystal structure of the complex was solved, showing a position of putidaredoxin that is identical with the one in the solution structure. The NMR data further demonstrate the presence of a minor state or set of states of the complex in solution, which is attributed to the presence of an encounter complex. The structure of the major state shows a small binding interface and a metal-to-metal distance of 16Å, with two pathways that provide strong electronic coupling of the redox centers. The interpretation of these results is discussed in the context of ET. The structure indicates that the ET rate can be much faster than the reported value, suggesting that the process may be gated.

Structure determination of protein-protein complexes with long-range anisotropic paramagnetic NMR restraints.

Paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy has evolved rapidly in the last decade, and has shown to be a very useful tool for solving structures of protein-protein complexes. A major breakthrough has been the development of paramagnetic metal binding tags that can be attached specifically to the protein. These tags have greatly facilitated the use of anisotropic paramagnetic restraints such as pseudocontact shifts and residual dipolar couplings arising from paramagnetic self-alignment. Such restraints are particularly useful for the study of large protein complexes. This review focuses on the recent developments in structural characterization of protein-protein complexes using anisotropic paramagnetic NMR restraints.

A pH-Sensitive, Colorful, Lanthanide-Chelating Paramagnetic NMR Probe

Paramagnetic lanthanides ions are broadly used in NMR spectroscopy. The effects of unpaired electrons on NMR spectral parameters provide a powerful tool for the characterization of macromolecular structures and dynamics. Here, a new lanthanide-chelating NMR probe, Caged Lanthanide NMR Probe-7 (CLaNP-7), is presented. It can be attached to protein surfaces via two disulfide bridges, yielding a probe that is rigid relative to the protein backbone. CLaNP-7 extends the application range of available probes. It has a yellow color, which is helpful for sample preparation. Its effects are comparable to those of CLaNP-5, but its charge is two units lower (+1) than that of CLaNP-5 (+3), reducing the change in surface potential after probe attachment. It also has a different magnetic susceptibility tensor, so by using both tags, two sets of structural restraints can be obtained per engineered cysteine pair. Moreover, it was found that the orientation of the magnetic susceptibility tensor is pH dependent (pK(a) ≈ 7) when a histidine residue is located in the neighborhood of the probe attachment site. The results show that the His imidazole group interacts with the CLaNP-7 tag. It is proposed that the histidine residue forms a hydrogen bond to a water/hydroxyl molecule that occupies the ninth coordination position on the lanthanide, thus breaking the two-fold symmetry of the CLaNP tag in a pH-dependent way.

Validation of a lanthanide tag for the analysis of protein dynamics by paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy.

Paramagnetic lanthanide tags potentially can enhance the effects of microsecond to millisecond dynamics in proteins on NMR signals and provide structural information on lowly populated states encoded in the pseudocontact shifts. We have investigated the microsecond to millisecond mobility of a two-point attached lanthanide tag, CLaNP-5, using paramagnetic (1)H CPMG relaxation dispersion methods. CLaNP-5 loaded with Lu(3+), Yb(3+), or Tm(3+) was attached to three sites on the surface of two proteins, pseudoazurin and cytochrome c. The paramagnetic center causes large relaxation dispersion effects for two attachment sites, suggesting that local dynamics of the protein at the attachment site causes mobility of the paramagnetic center. At one site the relaxation dispersions are small and limited to the immediate environment of the tag. It is concluded that paramagnetic relaxation dispersion could represent a sensitive method to probe protein dynamics. However, the selection of a rigid attachment site is of critical importance.

Characterization of Conformational Exchange of a Histidine Side Chain: Protonation, Rotamerization, and Tautomerization of His61 in Plastocyanin from Anabaena variabilis

A model describing conformational exchange of His 61 in plastocyanin from Anabaena variabilis is presented. A detailed picture of the exchange dynamics has been obtained using solution NMR relaxation measurements, chemical shift titrations, and structural information provided by a high-resolution crystal structure of the protein. A three-site model for chemical exchange that involves interconversion among the tautomeric and protonated forms of the histidine side chain with rates that are fast on the NMR chemical shift time scale can account for all of the data. In general, in the limit of fast exchange, it is not possible to obtain separate measures of chemical shift differences and populations of the participating states using NMR. However, we show here that when the data mentioned above are combined, it is possible to extract values of all of the parameters that characterize the exchange process, including rates, populations, and chemical shift changes, and to provide cross-validations that establish their accuracy. The methodology is generally applicable to the study of histidine side chain dynamics, which can play an important functional role in many protein systems.

Delicate conformational balance of the redox enzyme cytochrome P450cam

Significance The ubiquitous enzymes called cytochromes P450 catalyze a broad range of chemical reactions using molecular oxygen. For example, in humans, these enzymes are involved in breakdown of foreign compounds, including drugs. The bacterial cytochrome P450cam is thought to open up to allow substrate to enter the active site, and then to close during catalysis to keep reactive intermediates inside. Surprisingly, recent crystal structures suggested that the enzyme is open during the reaction. We have studied the enzyme in solution using paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy, demonstrating that, in fact, the enzyme is closed. This finding indicates that the subtle balance between open and closed is affected by crystallization, which can lead to the wrong conclusions about the protein dynamics. The energy landscapes of proteins are highly complex and can be influenced by changes in physical and chemical conditions under which the protein is studied. The redox enzyme cytochrome P450cam undergoes a multistep catalytic cycle wherein two electrons are transferred to the heme group and the enzyme visits several conformational states. Using paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy with a lanthanoid tag, we show that the enzyme bound to its redox partner, putidaredoxin, is in a closed state at ambient temperature in solution. This result contrasts with recent crystal structures of the complex, which suggest that the enzyme opens up when bound to its partner. The closed state supports a model of catalysis in which the substrate is locked in the active site pocket and the enzyme acts as an insulator for the reactive intermediates of the reaction.

A Two‐Armed Lanthanoid‐Chelating Paramagnetic NMR Probe Linked to Proteins via Thioether Linkages

Paramagnetic NMR probes provide valuable long-range structural information on proteins and protein complexes. A new, stable, two-armed lanthanoid probe is reported that can be attached to a protein site-specifically via chemically inert thioether linkages.

Histidine side-chain dynamics and protonation monitored by 13C CPMG NMR relaxation dispersion.

The use of 13C NMR relaxation dispersion experiments to monitor micro-millisecond fluctuations in the protonation states of histidine residues in proteins is investigated. To illustrate the approach, measurements on three specifically 13C labeled histidine residues in plastocyanin (PCu) from Anabaena variabilis (A.v.) are presented. Significant Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) relaxation dispersion is observed for 13Cε1 nuclei in the histidine imidazole rings of A.v. PCu. The chemical shift changes obtained from the CPMG dispersion data are in good agreement with those obtained from the chemical shift titration experiments, and the CPMG derived exchange rates agree with those obtained previously from 15N backbone relaxation measurements. Compared to measurements of backbone nuclei, 13Cε1 dispersion provides a more direct method to monitor interchanging protonation states or other kinds of conformational changes of histidine side chains or their environment. Advantages and shortcomings of using the 13Cε1 dispersion experiments in combination with chemical shift titration experiments to obtain information on exchange dynamics of the histidine side chains are discussed.

Ternary protein complex of ferredoxin, ferredoxin:thioredoxin reductase, and thioredoxin studied by paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy.

In oxygenic photosynthetic cells, carbon metabolism is regulated by a light-dependent redox signaling pathway through which the light signal is transmitted in the form of electrons via a redox chain comprising ferredoxin (Fd), ferredoxin:thioredoxin reductase (FTR), and thioredoxin (Trx). Trx affects the activity of a variety of enzymes via dithiol oxidation and reduction reactions. FTR reduces an intramolecular disulfide bridge of Trx, and Trx reduction involves a transient cross-link with FTR. NMR spectroscopy was used to investigate the interaction of Fd, FTR, and an m-type Trx. NMR titration experiments indicate that FTR uses distinct sites to bind Fd and Trx simultaneously to form a noncovalent ternary complex. The orientation of Trx-m relative to FTR was determined from the intermolecular paramagnetic broadening caused by the [4Fe-4S] cluster of FTR. Two models of the noncovalent binary complex of FTR/Trx-m based on the paramagnetic distance restraints were obtained. The models suggest that either a modest or major rotational movement of Trx must take place when the noncovalent binary complex proceeds to the covalent complex. This study demonstrates the complementarity of paramagnetic NMR and X-ray diffraction of crystals in the elucidation of dynamics in a transient protein complex.

Hot-Spot Residues in the Cytochrome P450cam–Putidaredoxin Binding Interface

Cytochrome P450cam (P450cam) is a heme‐containing monooxygenase that catalyzes the hydroxylation of D‐camphor to produce 5‐exo‐hydroxycamphor. The catalytic cycle of P450cam requires two electrons, both of which are donated by putidaredoxin (Pdx), a ferredoxin containing a [2 Fe–2 S] cluster. Atomic‐resolution structures of the Pdx‐P450cam complex have recently been solved by X‐ray crystallography and paramagnetic NMR spectroscopy. The binding interface showed the potential electron transfer pathways and interactions between Pdx Asp38 and P450cam Arg112, as well as hydrophobic contacts between the Pdx Trp106 and P450cam residues. Several polar residues not previously recognized as relevant for binding were found in the interface. In this study, site‐directed mutagenesis, kinetic measurements, and NMR studies were employed to probe the energetic importance and role of the polar residues in the Pdx–P450cam interaction. A double mutant cycle (DMC) analysis of kinetic data shows that favorable interactions exist between Pdx Tyr33 and P450cam Asp125, as well as between Pdx Ser42 and P450cam His352. The results show that alanine substitutions of these residues and several others do not influence the rates of electron transfer. It is concluded that these polar interactions contribute to partner recognition rather than to electronic coupling of the redox centers.