Mats Linder

On the method-dependence of transition state asynchronicity in Diels-Alder reactions†

This work discusses the dependence of transition state geometries on the choice of quantum chemical optimization method for the extensively studied Diels-Alder reaction. Rather significant differences are observed between post-Hartree-Fock methods and (hybrid) density functional theory, where the latter predicts larger asynchronicities. The results show that the low MP2 asynchronicity observed is likely artificial. Still, there are significant discrepancies between hybrid and pure density functionals. The role of the exchange functional seems to be most prominent in less activated reacting systems, while the importance of the correlation functional seems to increase as they become more activated by, e.g., an electron-donating group on the diene. To correct the dubious MP2 geometries, we employed the SCS-MP2 protocol for transition state optimization, which leads to significantly better results with respect to CCSD/6-31+G(d) level calculations. We conclude that in order for hybrid functionals to give descriptions consistent with the sample post-Hartree-Fock methods, a balanced combination of both Hartree-Fock exchange (with a couple of exceptions) and a well-behaved correlation functional is required. Given that the benchmark CCSD/6-31+G(d) geometries are sufficient representations, the best geometries were obtained using ωB97X(D), B2PLYP(D) and M06-2X.

Racemase Activity of B. cepacia Lipase Leads to Dual-Function Asymmetric Dynamic Kinetic Resolution of α-Aminonitriles†

The Diels-Alder reaction is one of the most powerful synthetic tools in organic chemistry, and asymmetric Diels-Alder catalysis allows for rapid construction of chiral carbon scaffolds. For this reason, considerable effort has been invested in developing efficient and stereoselective organo- and biocatalysts. However, Diels-Alder is a virtually unknown reaction in Nature, and to engineer an enzyme into a Diels-Alderase is therefore a challenging task. Despite several successful designs of catalytic antibodies since the 1980’s, their catalytic activities have remained low, and no true artificial ’Diels-Alderase’ enzyme was reported before 2010.In this thesis, we employ state-of-the-art computational tools to study the mechanism of organocatalyzed Diels-Alder in detail, and to redesign existing enzymes into intermolecular Diels-Alder catalysts. Papers I–IV explore the mechanistic variations when employing increasingly activated reactants and the effect of catalysis. In particular, the relation between the traditionally presumed concerted mechanism and a stepwise pathway, forming one bond at a time, is probed. Papers V–X deal with enzyme design and the computational aspects of predicting catalytic activity. Four novel, computationally designed Diels-Alderase candidates are presented in Papers VI–IX. In Paper X, a new parameterization of the Linear Interaction Energy model for predicting protein-ligand affinities is presented.A general finding in this thesis is that it is difficult to attain large transition state stabilization effects solely by hydrogen bond catalysis. In addition, water (the preferred solvent of enzymes) is well-known for catalyzing Diels- Alder by itself. Therefore, an efficient Diels-Alderase must rely on large binding affinities for the two substrates and preferential binding conformations close to the transition state geometry. In Papers VI–VIII, we co-designed the enzyme active site and substrates in order to achieve the best possible complementarity and maximize binding affinity and pre-organization. Even so, catalysis is limited by the maximum possible stabilization offered by hydrogen bonds, and by the inherently large energy barrier associated with the [4+2] cycloaddition.The stepwise Diels-Alder pathway, proceeding via a zwitterionic intermediate, may offer a productive alternative for enzyme catalysis, since an enzyme active site may be more differentiated towards stabilizing the high-energy states than for the standard mechanism. In Papers I and III, it is demonstrated that a hydrogen bond donor catalyst provides more stabilization of transition states having pronounced charge-transfer character, which shifts the preference towards a stepwise mechanism.Another alternative, explored in Paper IX, is to use an α,β -unsaturated ketone as a ’pro-diene’, and let the enzyme generate the diene in situ by general acid/base catalysis. The results show that the potential reduction in the reaction barrier with such a mechanism is much larger than for conventional Diels-Alder. Moreover, an acid/base-mediated pathway is a better mimic of how natural enzymes function, since remarkably few catalyze their reactions solely by non-covalent interactions.

Stepwise Diels–Alder: More than Just an Oddity? A Computational Mechanistic Study

We have employed hybrid DFT and SCS-MP2 calculations at the SMD-PCM-6-311++G(2d,2p)//6-31+G(d) level to investigate the relationship between three possible channels for forming a Diels-Alder adduct from a highly nucleophilic diene and moderately to highly electrophilic dienophiles. We discuss geometries optimized using the B3LYP and M06-2X functionals with the 6-31+(d) basis set. The transition states and intermediates are characterized on the basis of geometric and electronic properties, and we also address the possibility of predicting detectability of a zwitterionic intermediate based on its relative stability. Our results show that a conventional Diels-Alder transition state conformation yields intermediates in all four investigated cases, but that these are too short-lived to be detected experimentally for the less activated reactants. The stepwise trans pathway, beginning with a conjugate addition-like transition state, becomes increasingly competitive with more activated reactants and is indeed favored for the most electrophilic dienophiles. Addition of a trans diene leads to a dead-end as the trans intermediates have insurmountable rotation barriers that prohibit formation of the second bond, unless another, heterocyclic intermediate is formed. We also show that introduction of a hydrogen bond donating catalyst favors a stepwise pathway even for less activated dienophiles.

Mechanistic Insights into the Stepwise Diels–Alder Reaction of 4,6-Dinitrobenzofuroxan

The stepwise Diels-Alder reaction between 1-trimethylsiloxy-1,3-butadiene and 4,6-dinitrobenzofuroxan is explored using state-of-the-art computational methods. The results support a stepwise mechanism via a persistent intermediate, however, not the one previously reported (Lakhdar et al., Chem. Eur. J.2007, 16, 5681) but a heterocyclic adduct. The novel DFT functional M062X and the SCS-MP2 method were essential to reproduce a reasonable potential energy surface for this challenging system.

Synergistic activation of the Diels–Alder reaction by an organic catalyst and substituents: a computational study

Density functional theory (DFT), using the hybrid functionals B3LYP and B2PLYP, has been employed to investigate the activation of the acrolein-butadiene Diels-Alder reaction, mediated by a thiourea catalyst. Effects due to electron-donating groups (EDGs) on the diene, as well as electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs) on the dienophile, have also been studied. Organic catalysts such as thioureas are known to lower the activation energy through hydrogen-bonding to the carbonyl oxygen, in a way that mimics the oxyanion holes of hydrolytic enzymes. EDGs and EWGs were found to further activate the reaction, and the catalyst showed a synergistic behavior towards the EDGs. Polar solvents were found to reduce the overall activation energy, but also the relative catalytic effect of the thiourea, in accordance with experimental studies. The substituent-mediated reactions displayed more asynchronous transition structures with lower activation energy, which led us to investigate the possibility of an alternative two-step, Michael-type route, similar to what has been found in macrophomate synthase. Although the concerted Diels-Alder route was found to be favored over the Michael route, the calculated activation energy difference is less than 1 kcal mol(-1), which suggests that the two mechanisms compete, and could be responsible for the particular stereochemical outcome of an experiment.

Envisioning an enzymatic Diels–Alder reaction by in situ acid–base catalyzed diene generation

We present and evaluate a new and potentially efficient route for enzyme-mediated Diels-Alder reactions, utilizing general acid-base catalysis. The viability of employing the active site of ketosteroid isomerase is demonstrated.

Computational design of a lipase for catalysis of the Diels-Alder reaction

AbstractCombined molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) and density functional theory (DFT) studies have been employed to study catalysis of the Diels-Alder reaction by a modified lipase. Six variants of the versatile enzyme Candida Antarctica lipase B (CALB) have been rationally engineered in silico based on the specific characteristics of the pericyclic addition. A kinetic analysis reveals that hydrogen bond stabilization of the transition state and substrate binding are key components of the catalytic process. In the case of substrate binding, which has the greater potential for optimization, both binding strength and positioning of the substrates are important for catalytic efficiency. The binding strength is determined by hydrophobic interactions and can be tuned by careful selection of solvent and substrates. The MD simulations show that substrate positioning is sensitive to cavity shape and size, and can be controlled by a few rational mutations. The well-documented S105A mutation is essential to enable sufficient space in the vicinity of the oxyanion hole. Moreover, bulky residues on the edge of the active site hinders the formation of a sandwich-like nearattack conformer (NAC), and the I189A mutation is needed to obtain enough space above the face of the α,β-double bond on the dienophile. The double mutant S105A/I189A performs quite well for two of three dienophiles. Based on binding constants and NAC energies obtained from MD simulations combined with activation energies from DFT computations, relative catalytic rates (vcat/vuncat) of up to 103 are predicted. FigureUsing a combination of molecular dynamics simulations and quantum chemical calculations, it is demonstrated that a few rational mutations can improve the catalytic activity of a lipase towards the Diels-Alder reaction.

Computational Enzyme Design: Advances, hurdles and possible ways forward.

This mini review addresses recent developments in computational enzyme design. Successful protocols as well as known issues and limitations are discussed from an energetic perspective. It will be argued that improved results can be obtained by including a dynamic treatment in the design protocol. Finally, a molecular dynamics-based approach for evaluating and refining computational designs is presented.