Matt C. Howard

A meta-analysis and systematic literature review of virtual reality rehabilitation programs

A recent advancement in the study of physical rehabilitation is the application of virtual reality rehabilitation (VRR) programs, in which patients perform practice behaviors while interacting with the computer-simulation of an environment that imitates a physical presence in real or imagined worlds. Despite enthusiasm, much remains unknown about VRR programs. Particularly, two important research questions have been left unanswered: Are VRR programs effective? And, if so, why are VRR programs effective? A meta-analysis is performed in the current article to determine the efficacy of VRR programs, in general, as well as their ability to develop four specific rehabilitation outcomes: motor control, balance, gait, and strength. A systematic literature review is also performed to determine the mechanisms that may cause VRR program success or failure. The results demonstrate that VRR programs are more effective than traditional rehabilitation programs for physical outcome development. Further, three mechanisms have been proposed to cause these improved outcomes: excitement, physical fidelity, and cognitive fidelity; however, empirical research has yet to show that these mechanisms actually prompt better rehabilitation outcomes. The implications of these results and possible avenues for future research and practice are discussed. Virtual reality rehabilitation (VRR) programs are growing in popularity.VRR programs are more effective than traditional rehabilitation programs.Excitement, physical fidelity, and cognitive fidelity may cause VRR program success.More research is needed to better understand VRR programs.

A Review of Exploratory Factor Analysis Decisions and Overview of Current Practices: What We Are Doing and How Can We Improve?

Authors within the fields of cyberpsychology and human−computer interaction have demonstrated a particular interest in measurement and scale creation, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is an extremely important statistical method for these areas of research. Unfortunately, EFA requires several statistical and methodological decisions to which the best choices are often unclear. The current article reviews five primary decisions and provides direct suggestions for best practices. These decisions are (a) the data inspection techniques, (b) the factor analytic method, (c) the factor retention method, (d) the factor rotation method, and (e) the factor loading cutoff. Then the article reviews authors’ choices for these five EFA decisions in every relevant article within seven cyberpsychology and/or human–computer interaction journals. The results demonstrate that authors do not employ the recommended best practices for most decisions. Particularly, most authors do not inspect their data for violations of assumptions, apply inappropriate factor analytic methods, utilize outdated factor retention methods, and omit the justification for their factor rotation methods. Further, many authors omit altogether their EFA decisions. To rectify these concerns, the current article provides a step-by-step guide and checklist that authors can reference to ensure the use of recommended best practices. Together, the current article identifies concerns with current research and provides direct solutions to these concerns.

Does the courage measure really measure courage? A theoretical and empirical evaluation

Courage has seen an explosion of research in all branches of psychology, and the most popular measure is Norton and Weiss’s the courage measure (CM). Despite widespread use, limited investigations into its psychometric properties and validity have been performed. To ensure the strength of findings drawn from the scale, the current study performs a theoretical, psychometric, and empirical analysis of the CM. The results demonstrate that the CM has theoretical concerns stemming from the operational definition of courage used during its creation, and may not actually measure courage. Also, the CM was shown to consist of two dimensions separated by regular and reverse coding. Next, the scale demonstrated slight concerns with method effects, and its construct validity was analyzed. Together, the results demonstrate that the CM would benefit from the removal of reverse coded items, and may actually gage persistence despite fear rather than courage.

To boldly go where no group has gone before: An analysis of online group identity and validation of a measure

Abstract Online groups have become more popular in recent decades, in both research and practice. Many authors have proposed important outcomes of group membership, and some have even investigated some preliminary dynamics of these online groups. Unfortunately, no validated measure of online group identity exists, causing these researchers to employ measures with poor psychometric properties or concerning construct validity. For these reasons, the current article undergoes a multiple study process to validate a measure of online group identity. In doing so, several aspects of online group identity are discovered, largely based on propositions previously posed for offline groups. Study 1 demonstrates that individuals from a general sample identify with online groups, and the measure has an identifiable factor structure. Using a naturally occurring online group, Study 2 shows the measure’s concurrent, convergent, and divergent validity, while simultaneously revealing many novel relationships of online group identity. Lastly, Study 3 investigates the effect of The United States President, Barack Obama, creating an account on the website studied in Study 2 and interacting with group members. The results of Study 3 reveal that online group identity did not change after this historic event, although members had notable emotional responses. In all, the current study illustrates the validity of an online group identity measure, and discovers many important relationships previously unknown in regards to online group identity. It is believed that the investigated measure of online group identity will become an important tool in future research, especially when further probing the relationships analyzed in the current study. Further implications and suggestions for future studies are discussed.

Creation of a Computer Self-Efficacy Measure: Analysis of Internal Consistency, Psychometric Properties, and Validity

Computer self-efficacy is an often studied construct that has been shown to be related to an array of important individual outcomes. Unfortunately, existing measures of computer self-efficacy suffer from several deficiencies, including criterion contamination, outdated wording, and/or inadequate psychometric properties. For this reason, the current article presents the creation of a new computer self-efficacy measure. In Study 1, an over-representative item list is created and subsequently reduced through exploratory factor analysis to create an initial measure, and the discriminant validity of this initial measure is tested. In Study 2, the unidimensional factor structure of the initial measure is supported through confirmatory factor analysis and further reduced into a final, 12-item measure. In Study 3, the convergent and criterion validity of the 12-item measure is tested. Overall, this three study process demonstrates that the new computer self-efficacy measure has superb psychometric properties and internal reliability, and demonstrates excellent evidence for several aspects of validity. It is hoped that the 12-item computer self-efficacy measure will be utilized in future research on computer self-efficacy, which is discussed in the current article.

Variable-Centered, Person-Centered, and Person-Specific Approaches: Where Theory Meets the Method

The variable-centered approach is favored in management and applied psychology, but the person-centered approach is quickly growing in popularity. A partial cause for this rise is the finer-grained detail that it allows. Many researchers may be unaware, however, that another approach may provide even finer-grained detail: the person-specific approach. In the current article, we (a) detail the purpose of each approach, (b) describe how to determine when each approach is most appropriate, and (c) delineate when the approaches diverge to give differing results. Through achieving these goals, we suggest that no single approach is the “best.” Instead, the choice of approach should be guided by the research question. To further emphasize this point, we provide illustrative examples using real data to answer three distinct research questions. The results show that each research question can be fully addressed only by the appropriate approach. To conclude, we directly suggest certain research areas that may benefit from the application of person-centered and person-specific approaches. Together, we believe that discussing variable-centered, person-centered, and person-specific approaches together may provide a more thorough understanding of each.

The left side of courage: Three exploratory studies on the antecedents of social courage

Abstract Courage has been linked to important workplace outcomes, but little is known about the antecedents of courage. To identify possible methods to develop a more courageous workforce, the current article provides initial evidence regarding the antecedents of behavioral social courage from five broad categories: personality, job characteristics, leadership, culture, and demographic characteristics. Three exploratory studies show that certain antecedents from these categories have a significant relationship with behavioral social courage, including grit, proactive personality (personality), social support (job characteristics), empowering leadership (leadership), power distance (culture), and age (demographics). Perceived courage benefits and risks did not mediate the effect of most antecedents on behavioral social courage. These results suggest that certain antecedents may influence behavioral social courage, but the mediators of these relationships remain unknown. Further implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The Communication Anxiety Regulation Scale: Development and Initial Validation

A series of studies present the development and validation of the Communication Anxiety Regulation Scale (CARS), a self-report measure designed to assess the use of emotion regulation strategies to manage acute communication anxiety—in contrast to measures of general emotion regulation tendencies. Study 1 delineates the item derivation and selection process that yielded the final 12 CARS items. Results of an exploratory factor analysis supported the existence of four distinct subscales, each representing one of four anxiety regulation strategies (suppression, reappraisal, avoidance, and venting). Study 2 confirmed this factor structure and also examined correlations of the CARS with existing measures in an attempt to establish concurrent validity. Finally, Study 3 presents results of an item-sort task demonstrating the scale’s face validity and items’ substantive validity. Overall, findings provide preliminary support for the utility of the CARS as measure of communication anxiety regulation to be used by communication and psychology researchers.

Investigating the simulation elements of environment and control

Recent technological advancements have enabled the widespread application of simulations in organizations, particularly for training contexts. Two important simulation elements, environment and control, have often been shown to improve trainee outcomes. I argue that environment and control are reliant on each other, and their combined effects are explained by extending the Uncanny Valley Theory. The Uncanny Valley Theory proposes that individuals are comfortable with experiences that are very dissimilar or similar to reality, but are uncomfortable with experiences that fall between these conditions. In simulations, perceptions of realism are created through observations (environment) and interactions (control). Users are comfortable with experiences when these elements are in agreement; however, an Uncanny Valley effect may occur when these elements are in disagreement. In the current article, two studies analyze the realism of environment and control in predicting trainee reactions and learning outcomes. Both studies support the extension of the Uncanny Valley Theory to simulations. Simulations with only low or only high environment and control produce the greatest outcomes, and those with mixed low and high elements produce the worst outcomes; however, trainees did not differ in reactions to the simulations, indicating that the Uncanny Valley phenomenon in simulations may operate subconsciously. Environment and control in simulations may cause an Uncanny Valley perception.The interactive effect of environment and control predicted learning.The interactive effect of environment and control did not predict user reactions.The Uncanny Valley phenomenon in simulations subconsciously impacts learning.

The convergent validity and nomological net of two methods to measure retroactive influences.

Two notable criticisms have been recently raised against research on retroactive influences (RIs). First, researchers have rarely tested the measurement properties of their methods to gauge RIs, and it is still relatively unknown whether any commonly used method is adequate for gauging RIs. Second, RI research needs more close replications in addition to conceptual replications, in which all aspects of the original study are reproduced. The current article investigates both of these criticisms. The current article explores the convergent validity and nomological network of two methods to measure RIs, and it also provides three studies to test these effects: an initial investigation, a close replication, and a conceptual replication. The relationship of the two methods did not meet even minimal requirements for convergent validity in all three studies, failing to provide support for their ability to measure RIs. The overall sample-size weighted correlation was .03 (ŕ , 95% CI [−.07, .12]). Also, the two measures did not share any significant relationships with any other variables, suggesting that they do not share a common nomological net. Together, the current article emphasizes the need for future research to further test the measurement of RIs, as researchers of RI cannot convincingly claim that their results are valid without first supporting their measurement methods. The current article also highlights the importance of valid measurement across all domains of psychology and beyond. Additional implications and directions for future research are discussed.