Matt Tincani

Quantitative Synthesis and Component Analysis of Single-Participant Studies on the Picture Exchange Communication System:

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) has emerged as the augmentative communication intervention of choice for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with a supporting body of single-participant studies. This report describes a meta-analysis of 16 single-participant studies on PECS with percentage of nonoverlapping data (PND) as the metric of effect size. Results suggest that PECS was moderately effective in establishing mands (PND = 80.1) for 41 participants up to Phase IV of the system. Higher levels of manding were found when PECS was taught to individuals without ASD diagnoses versus those with ASD diagnoses and in single settings versus multiple settings; however, these differences were not statistically significant. For a smaller subset of participants for whom vocalizations were recorded, PECS appeared to facilitate speech, though considerable variability in speech acquisition was evident. While these results support PECS as an evidenced-based communication intervention, they indicate that more research is needed on speech with PECS, to establish the efficacy of PECS when implemented across settings and communicative partners, and to confirm efficacy of Phases IV, V, and VI.

Race, Culture, and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Understanding the Role of Diversity in Successful Educational Interventions

The reported prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has increased dramatically since the 1980s. In response, researchers, educators, and policy makers have sought to develop effective technologies for assessment and intervention. A focus on evidenced-based practices is logical, given significant deficits in language, social interaction, cognition, and adaptive behavior that comprise these conditions. Although critical, a technology of best practices is insufficient without understanding the important role that diversity plays in helping persons with ASD, particularly those with the most severe impairments, to lead fulfilling lives. The aim of the current article is threefold. First, we explore the concept of diversity with particular attention to neurodiversity among persons with ASD. We describe how cultural and linguistic diversity influence identification of students with ASD in special education, with data to suggest that racially diverse students are underrepresented in the autism category. We then examine the educational process with particular focus on the impact of parent and family culture on perception of disability, the influence of diverse family systems on interventions, and the successful interventions for diverse contexts. We conclude with recommendations for culturally competent practice and research.

A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Brief versus Traditional Functional Analyses.

The study compared a brief and an extended (i.e., traditional) functional analyses with three adults with serious developmental disabilities. Two of the subjects exhibited high levels of aggressive behavior, whereas the third engaged in self-injury. Both analyses examined conditions such as tangible reinforcement, attention, demand, alone and play (i.e., baseline). The brief functional analysis also included functional communication training in which the subjects learned a relevant mand. The brief and extended functional analyses revealed the same controlling variables in all cases, but the brief functional analyses took less than 20% of the time in analog conditions as the extended analyses. These results further the case for the utility of brief functional analyses. We caution, however, that behavior analysts should not generalize from a study that involved only three subjects and that brief functional analyses may be particularly sensitive to establishing operations.

Facilitated Communication Denies People With Disabilities Their Voice

Facilitated Communication (FC) has been rebranded as “supported typing” and repackaged as rapid prompting method, but remains a disproven intervention for people with disabilities. Despite the absence of supportive evidence and abundant evidence that facilitators always author the messages, FC has experienced resurgence in popularity among families, professionals, and advocacy groups. Strategic marketing, confirmation bias, pseudoscience, anti-science, and fallacy explain this troubling renewal. We briefly discuss each of these and contrast the method with authentic augmentative and alternative communication to illustrate differences in values and practices. Our intention is to persuade readers to resist or abandon FC in favor of validated methods and to encourage advocacy organizations to advance agendas that emphasize genuine self-expression by people with disabilities.

A Multiyear National Profile of Racial Disparity in Autism Identification

Disproportionate representation of racially diverse students in special education is a well-documented problem, yet few studies have systematically evaluated disproportionate representation of diverse students with autism. This study examined disproportionate representation of racially diverse students with autism by determining risk and logistical odds ratios among racially diverse and White students from the national population between 1998 and 2006. Although overall risk of autism increased for all racial groups every year, White students were twice as likely to be identified with autism as Hispanic and American Indian/Alaskan Native students during most years of the sample. Although initially overrepresented, the odds ratios for Asian/Pacific Islander and Black students with autism continuously declined in recent years. Hispanic and American Indian/Alaskan Native students were significantly underrepresented every year in the analysis. Potential cause and implications of underrepresentation are described, along with directions for research.

Racial Disparity in Administrative Autism Identification Across the United States During 2000 and 2007

Evidence of disparate identification of autism at national and local levels is accumulating, but there is little understanding about disparate identification of autism at the state level. This study examined trends in state-level administrative identification of autism under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Prevalence rates and odds ratios were calculated for each state using enrollment counts for years 2000 and 2007. Results indicated increases in administrative prevalence of autism for all racial groups from 2000 to 2007, but increasing underidentification of Black and Hispanic students in 2007 compared with White students. Variability existed in the identification of autism among Black and Hispanic students across states over time. Implications for the findings are discussed in the context of the field’s need to establish rigorous policies and practices for eligibility determinations due to autism and equitable access to evidence-based intervention practices.

An iPad™-based picture and video activity schedule increases community shopping skills of a young adult with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability.

Abstract Objective: To evaluate the iPad 2™ with Book Creator™ software to provide visual cues and video prompting to teach shopping skills in the community to a young adult with an autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Methods: A multiple probe across settings design was used to assess effects of the intervention on the participant’s independence with following a shopping list in a grocery store across three community locations. Results: Visual cues and video prompting substantially increased the participant’s shopping skills within two of the three community locations, skill increases maintained after the intervention was withdrawn, and shopping skills generalized to two untaught shopping items. Social validity surveys suggested that the participant’s parent and staff favorably viewed the goals, procedures, and outcomes of intervention. Conclusions: The iPad 2™ with Book Creator™ software may be an effective way to teach independent shopping skills in the community; additional replications are needed.

Beyond Consumer Advocacy Autism Spectrum Disorders, Effective Instruction, and Public Schools

disorders (ASD) has surged in recent years (Fombonne, 2005). The marked increase in children with ASD who attend public school (U.S. Department of Education, 2003) has accompanied an unprecedented discussion about how best to educate this challenging and diverse population (National Research Council, 2001). A considerable body of research has emerged, and a number of promising, evidence-based strategies have been developed (Simpson et al., 2005); however, despite need, the dynamic nature of public schools complicates the process of selecting and delivering evidence-based instruction to students with ASD. Public schools are social systems in which multiple demands compete with limited resources. Recent legislative reforms have increased pressure on schools to demonstrate learning outcomes for all students, including students with disabilities (McLaughlin & Thurlow, 2003). School systems have invested significant resources in various reform models aimed at improving academic performance (e.g., Koh & Robertson, 2003), although the impact of such reforms on students with disabilities is unclear. Under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, states are now required to assess all students’ progress in the general education curriculum. Consequently, schools must balance the academic progress of students with disabilities with the legal mandates of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004, including least restrictive environment (LRE) provisions. Students with significant disabilities, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD), are increasingly included in general education; however, successful inclusion is sometimes countered by resistance from general educators and lack of necessary administrative support (Dybvik, 2004). Service delivery for students with ASD is further complicated by the multidisciplinary nature of special education. In public schools, special educators, general educators, related service providers, and administrators collaborate with parents to develop a student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP). Disagreements about appropriate programming occur as professionals and parents bring differing experiences and philosophies to the process. For example, it is not uncommon for parents of children with ASD to advocate a program primarily based in applied behavior analysis (ABA) while professional team members advocate a more eclectic approach (Etscheidt, 2003). Professionals also tend to endorse strategies conforming to their philosophy and professional training, which may result in conflicts during the teaming process. For instance, an occupational therapist may endorse sensory integration (SI) therapy (Cook & Dunn, 1998) to address a student’s challenging behavior, whereas a behavior specialist may recommend a behaviorally based approach (e.g., Durand & Merges, 2001). Teachers and paraprofessionals often lack the training necessary to implement a specialized approach without considerable support from related service providers or consultants. Without support, evidence-based interventions are unlikely to be implemented as intended. Finally, from the perspective of public school administrators, some intervention strategies are prohibitively expensive—particularly when they require outside consultants or 1:1 staffing ratios—and deplete scarce school resources. The factors that affect evidence-based intervention for students with ASD are highlighted in Figure 1. This is not intended to be an exhaustive diagram but rather a summary of the major overlapping variables that consti-

An Analysis of Social Skills Instruction Provided in Teacher Education and In-Service Training Programs for General and Special Educators

An adapted version of the Teacher/Staff Skillstreaming Checklist was used to determine the level, type, and area of social skills instruction provided to general and special education teachers. Nine universities participated in the study in which facilitators advertised the adapted questionnaire to licensed general and special education teachers enrolled in university-based degree programs over a 6-month period. A total of 237 participants completed the questionnaire. Results indicate that general and special education teachers receive a limited amount of direct and incidental social skills instruction in their preservice and/or in-service training programs. The general and special education teachers reported receiving more instruction in particular areas of social skills within their in-service training. Special education teachers who teach in self-contained settings did not receive more social skills instruction than did resource room teachers in preservice or in-service training programs. However, special education teachers who teach in resource rooms did receive more social skills instruction than did general education teachers, but only in their preservice training programs.

Publishing Single-Case Research Design Studies That Do Not Demonstrate Experimental Control

Demonstration of experimental control is considered a hallmark of high-quality single-case research design (SCRD). Studies that fail to demonstrate experimental control may not be published because researchers are unwilling to submit these papers for publication and journals are unlikely to publish negative results (i.e., the file drawer effect). SCRD studies comprise a large proportion of intervention research in special education. Consequently, the existing body of research, comprised mainly of studies that show experimental control, may artificially inflate efficacy of interventions. We discuss how experimental control evolved as the standard for high-quality SCRD; why, in the era of evidence-based practice, rigorous studies that fail to fully demonstrate experimental control are important to include in the body of published intervention research; the role of non-replication studies in discovering intervention boundaries; and considerations for researchers who wish to conduct and appraise studies that fail to yield full experimental control.