Matthew B. Kraft

Convergent assembly of highly potent analogues of bryostatin 1 via pyran annulation: bryostatin look-alikes that mimic phorbol ester function.

Highly potent bryostatin analogues which contain the complete bryostatin core structure have been synthesized using a pyran annulation approach as a key strategic element. The A ring pyran was assembled using a pyran annulation reaction between a C1-C8 hydroxy allylsilane and an aldehyde comprising C9-C13. This pyran was transformed to a new hydroxy allylsilane and then coupled with a preformed C ring aldehyde subunit in a second pyran annulation, with concomitant formation of the B ring. This tricyclic intermediate was elaborated to bryostatin analogues which displayed nanomolar to subnanomolar affinity for PKC, but displayed properties indistinguishable from a phorbol ester in a proliferation/attachment assay.

Substitution on the A-Ring Confers to Bryopyran Analogues the Unique Biological Activity Characteristic of Bryostatins and Distinct From That of the Phorbol Esters

A close structural analogue of bryostatin 1, which differs from bryostatin 1 only by the absence of the C(30) carbomethoxy group (on the C(13) enoate of the B-ring), has been prepared by total synthesis. Biological assays reveal a crucial role for substitution in the bryostatin 1 A-ring in conferring those responses which are characteristic of bryostatin 1 and distinct from those observed with PMA.

The bryostatin 1 A-ring acetate is not the critical determinant for antagonism of phorbol ester-induced biological responses.

The contribution of the A-ring C(7) acetate to the function of bryostatin 1 has been investigated through synthesis and biological evaluation of an analogue incorporating this feature into the bryopyran core structure. No enhanced binding affinity for protein kinase C (PKC) was observed, relative to previously characterized analogues lacking the C(7) acetate. Functional assays showed biological responses characteristic of those induced by the phorbol ester PMA and distinctly different from those observed with bryostatin 1.

The synthetic bryostatin analog Merle 23 dissects distinct mechanisms of bryostatin activity in the LNCaP human prostate cancer cell line

Bryostatin 1 has attracted considerable attention both as a cancer chemotherapeutic agent and for its unique activity. Although it functions, like phorbol esters, as a potent protein kinase C (PKC) activator, it paradoxically antagonizes many phorbol ester responses in cells. Because of its complex structure, little is known of its structure-function relations. Merle 23 is a synthetic derivative, differing from bryostatin 1 at only four positions. However, in U-937 human leukemia cells, Merle 23 behaves like a phorbol ester and not like bryostatin 1. Here, we characterize the behavior of Merle 23 in the human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. In this system, bryostatin 1 and phorbol ester have contrasting activities, with the phorbol ester but not bryostatin 1 blocking cell proliferation or tumor necrosis factor alpha secretion, among other responses. We show that Merle 23 displays a highly complex pattern of activity in this system. Depending on the specific biological response or mechanistic change, it was bryostatin-like, phorbol ester-like, intermediate in its behavior, or more effective than either. The pattern of response, moreover, varied depending on the conditions. We conclude that the newly emerging bryostatin derivatives such as Merle 23 provide powerful tools to dissect subsets of bryostatin mechanism and response.

Total Synthesis of Epothilones B and D: Stannane Equivalents for β-Keto Ester Dianions

Studies leading to a total synthesis of epothilones B and D are described. The overall synthetic plan was based on late-stage fragment assembly of two segments representing C(1)-C(9) and C(10)-C(21) of the structure. The C(1)-C(9) fragment was prepared by elaboration of commercially available (2R)-3-hydroxy-2-methylpropanoate at both ends of the three-carbon unit. Introduction of carbons 1-4 containing the gem-dimethyl unit was achieved in a convergent manner using a diastereoselective addition of a stannane equivalent of a beta-keto ester dianion. An enantioselective addition of such a stannane equivalent for a beta-keto ester dianion was also used to fashion one version of the C(10)-C(21) subunit; however, the fragment assembly (using bimolecular esterification followed by ring-closing metathesis) with this subunit failed. Therefore, fragment assembly was achieved using a Wittig reaction; this was followed by macrolactonization to close the macrocycle. The C(10)-C(21) subunit needed for this approach was prepared in an efficient manner using the Corey-Kim reaction as a key element. Other key reactions in the synthesis include a stereoselective SmI(2) reduction of a beta-hydroxy ketone and a critical opening of a valerolactone with aniline which required extensive investigation.

Synthesis of a des-B-Ring Bryostatin Analogue Leads to an Unexpected Ring Expansion of the Bryolactone Core

A convergent synthesis of a des-B-ring bryostatin analogue is described. This analogue was found to undergo an unexpected ring expansion of the bryolactone core to generate the corresponding 21-membered macrocycle. The parent analogue and the ring-expanded product both displayed nanomolar binding affinity for PKC. Despite containing A-ring substitution identical to that of bryostatin 1 and displaying bryostatin-like biological function, the des-B-ring analogues displayed a phorbol-like biological function in cells. These studies shed new light on the role of the bryostatin B-ring in conferring bryo-like biological function to bryostatin analogues.

Comparison of transcriptional response to phorbol ester, bryostatin 1, and bryostatin analogs in LNCaP and U937 cancer cell lines provides insight into their differential mechanism of action.

Bryostatin 1, like the phorbol esters, binds to and activates protein kinase C (PKC) but paradoxically antagonizes many but not all phorbol ester responses. Previously, we have compared patterns of biological response to bryostatin 1, phorbol ester, and the bryostatin 1 derivative Merle 23 in two human cancer cell lines, LNCaP and U937. Bryostatin 1 fails to induce a typical phorbol ester biological response in either cell line, whereas Merle 23 resembles phorbol ester in the U937 cells and bryostatin 1 in the LNCaP cells. Here, we have compared the pattern of their transcriptional response in both cell lines. We examined by qPCR the transcriptional response as a function of dose and time for a series of genes regulated by PKCs. In both cell lines bryostatin 1 differed primarily from phorbol ester in having a shorter duration of transcriptional modulation. This was not due to bryostatin 1 instability, since bryostatin 1 suppressed the phorbol ester response. In both cell lines Merle 23 induced a pattern of transcription largely like that of phorbol ester although with a modest reduction at later times in the LNCaP cells, suggesting that the difference in biological response of the two cell lines to Merle 23 lies downstream of this transcriptional regulation. For a series of bryostatins and analogs which ranged from bryostatin 1-like to phorbol ester-like in activity on the U937 cells, the duration of transcriptional response correlated with the pattern of biological activity, suggesting that this may provide a robust platform for structure activity analysis.

Some phorbol esters might partially resemble bryostatin 1 in their actions on LNCaP prostate cancer cells and U937 leukemia cells.

Phorbol 12‐myristate 13‐acetate (PMA) and bryostatin 1 are both potent protein kinase C (PKC) activators. In LNCaP human prostate cancer cells, PMA induces tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) secretion and inhibits proliferation; bryostatin 1 does not, and indeed blocks the response to PMA. This difference has been attributed to bryostatin 1 not localizing PKCδ to the plasma membrane. Since phorbol ester lipophilicity influences PKCδ localization, we have examined in LNCaP cells a series of phorbol esters and related derivatives spanning some eight logs in lipophilicity (logP) to see if any behave like bryostatin 1. The compounds showed marked differences in their effects on proliferation and TNFα secretion. For example, maximal responses for TNFα secretion relative to PMA ranged from 97 % for octyl‐indolactam V to 24 % for phorbol 12,13‐dibenzoate. Dose–response curves ranged from monophasic for indolactam V to markedly biphasic for sapintoxin D. The divergent patterns of response, however, correlated neither to lipophilicity, to plasma membrane translocation of PKCδ, nor to the ability to interact with model membranes. In U937 human leukemia cells, a second system in which PMA and bryostatin 1 have divergent effects, viz. PMA but not bryostatin 1 inhibits proliferation and induces attachment, all the compounds acted like PMA for proliferation, but several induced a reduced level or a biphasic dose–response curve for attachment. We conclude that active phorbol esters are not all equivalent. Depending on the system, some might partially resemble bryostatin 1 in their behavior; this encourages the concept that bryostatin‐like behavior may be obtained from other structural templates.

Neristatin 1 provides critical insight into bryostatin 1 structure-function relationships.

Bryostatin 1, a complex macrocyclic lactone isolated from Bugula neritina, has been the subject of multiple clinical trials for cancer. Although it functions as an activator of protein kinase C (PKC) in vitro, bryostatin 1 paradoxically antagonizes most responses to the prototypical PKC activator, the phorbol esters. The bottom half of the bryostatin 1 structure has been shown to be sufficient to confer binding to PKC. In contrast, we have previously shown that the top half of the bryostatin 1 structure is necessary for its unique biological behavior to antagonize phorbol ester responses. Neristatin 1 comprises a top half similar to that of bryostatin 1 together with a distinct bottom half that confers PKC binding. We report here that neristatin 1 is bryostatin 1-like, not phorbol ester-like, in its biological activity on U937 promyelocytic leukemia cells. We conclude that the top half of the bryostatin 1 structure is largely sufficient for bryostatin 1-like activity, provided the molecule also possesses an appropriate PKC binding domain.

Synthesis of lipid-linked arabinofuranose donors for glycosyltransferases.

Mycobacteria and corynebacteria use decaprenylphosphoryl-β-D-arabinofuranose (DPA) as a critical cell wall building block. Arabinofuranosyltransferases that process this substrate to mediate cell wall assembly have served as drug targets, but little is known about the substrate specificity of any of these enzymes. To probe substrate recognition of DPA, we developed a general and efficient synthetic route to β-D-arabinofuranosyl phosphodiesters. In this approach, the key glycosyl phosphodiester bond-forming reaction proceeds with high β-selectivity. In addition to its stereoselectivity, our route provides the means to readily access a variety of different lipid analogues, including aliphatic and polyprenyl substrates.