Matthew D. Weaver

Interruptions in Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation From Paramedic Endotracheal Intubation

STUDY OBJECTIVE Emergency cardiac care guidelines emphasize treatment of cardiopulmonary arrest with continuous uninterrupted cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) chest compressions. Paramedics in the United States perform endotracheal intubation on nearly all victims of out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest. We quantified the frequency and duration of CPR chest compression interruptions associated with paramedic endotracheal intubation efforts during out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest. METHODS We studied adult out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest treated by an urban and a rural emergency medical services agency from the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium during November 2006 to June 2007. Cardiac monitors with compression sensors continuously recorded rescuer CPR chest compressions. A digital audio channel recorded all resuscitation events. We identified CPR interruptions related to endotracheal intubation efforts, including airway suctioning, laryngoscopy, endotracheal tube placement, confirmation and adjustment, securing the tube in place, bag-valve-mask ventilation between intubation attempts, and alternate airway insertion. We identified the number and duration of CPR interruptions associated with endotracheal intubation efforts. RESULTS We included 100 of 182 out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrests in the analysis. The median number of endotracheal intubation-associated CPR interruption was 2 (interquartile range [IQR] 1 to 3; range 1 to 9). The median duration of the first endotracheal intubation-associated CPR interruption was 46.5 seconds (IQR 23.5 to 73 seconds; range 7 to 221 seconds); almost one third exceeded 1 minute. The median total duration of all endotracheal intubation-associated CPR interruptions was 109.5 seconds (IQR 54 to 198 seconds; range 13 to 446 seconds); one fourth exceeded 3 minutes. Endotracheal intubation-associated CPR pauses composed approximately 22.8% (IQR 12.6-36.5%; range 1.0% to 93.4%) of all CPR interruptions. CONCLUSION In this series, paramedic out-of-hospital endotracheal intubation efforts were associated with multiple and prolonged CPR interruptions.

Trends in Visits for Traumatic Brain Injury to Emergency Departments in the United States

In the last decade, traumatic brain injury (TBI) garnered increased attention, including public campaigns and legislation to increase awareness and prevent head injuries.1 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes TBI as a serious public health concern.2 We sought to describe national trends in emergency department (ED) visits for TBI.

Association Between Poor Sleep, Fatigue, and Safety Outcomes in Emergency Medical Services Providers

Abstract Objective. To determine the association between poor sleep quality, fatigue, and self-reported safety outcomes among emergency medical services (EMS) workers. Methods. We used convenience sampling of EMS agencies and a cross-sectional survey design. We administered the 19-item Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), 11-item Chalder Fatigue Questionnaire (CFQ), and 44-item EMS Safety Inventory (EMS-SI) to measure sleep quality, fatigue, and safety outcomes, respectively. We used a consensus process to develop the EMS-SI, which was designed to capture three composite measurements of EMS worker injury, medical errors and adverse events (AEs), and safety-compromising behaviors. We used hierarchical logistic regression to test the association between poor sleep quality, fatigue, and three composite measures of EMS worker safety outcomes. Results. We received 547 surveys from 30 EMS agencies (a 35.6% mean agency response rate). The mean PSQI score exceeded the benchmark for poor sleep (6.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] 6.6, 7.2). More than half of the respondents were classified as fatigued (55%, 95% CI 50.7, 59.3). Eighteen percent of the respondents reported an injury (17.8%, 95% CI 13.5, 22.1), 41% reported a medical error or AE (41.1%, 95% CI 36.8, 45.4), and 90% reported a safety-compromising behavior (89.6%, 95% CI 87, 92). After controlling for confounding, we identified 1.9 greater odds of injury (95% CI 1.1, 3.3), 2.2 greater odds of medical error or AE (95% CI 1.4, 3.3), and 3.6 greater odds of safety-compromising behavior (95% CI 1.5, 8.3) among fatigued respondents versus nonfatigued respondents. Conclusions. In this sample of EMS workers, poor sleep quality and fatigue are common. We provide preliminary evidence of an association between sleep quality, fatigue, and safety outcomes.

Opportunities for Emergency Medical Services care of sepsis.

OBJECTIVE Emergency Medical Services (EMS) systems play key roles in the rapid identification and treatment of critical illness such as trauma, myocardial infarction and stroke. EMS often provides care for sepsis, a life-threatening sequelae of infection. In this study of Emergency Department patients admitted to the hospital with an infection, we characterized the patients receiving initial care by EMS. METHODS We prospectively studied patients with suspected infection presenting to a 50,000 visit urban, academic ED from September 16, 2005-September 30, 2006. We included patients who had abnormal ED vital signs or required hospital admission. We identified patients that received EMS care. Between EMS and non-EMS patients, we compared patient age, sex, nursing home residency, vital signs, comorbidities, source of infection, organ dysfunction, sepsis severity and mortality. We analyzed the data using univariate odds ratios, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test and multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS Of 4613 ED patients presenting with serious infections, 1576 (34.2%) received initial EMS care. The mortality rate among those transported by EMS was 126/1576 (8.0%) compared to 67/3037 (2.2%) in those who were not. Adjusted mortality was higher for EMS (OR 1.8, 95% CI: 1.3-2.6). Of patients who qualified for protocolized sepsis care in the ED, 99/162 (61.1%) were transported via EMS. EMS patients were more likely to present with severe sepsis (OR 3.9; 3.4-4.5) or septic shock (OR 3.6; 2.6-5.0). EMS patients had higher sepsis acuity (mortality in ED sepsis score 6 vs. 3, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS EMS provides initial care for over one-third of ED infection patients, including the majority of patients with severe sepsis, septic shock, and those who ultimately die. EMS systems may offer important opportunities for advancing sepsis diagnosis and care.

Variation in Emergency Medical Services Workplace Safety Culture

Abstract Introduction. Workplace attitude, beliefs, and culture may impact the safety of patient care. This study characterized perceptions of safety culture in a nationwide sample of emergency medical services (EMS) agencies. Methods. We conducted a cross-sectional survey involving 61 advanced life support EMS agencies in North America. We administered a modified version of the Safety Attitudes Questionnaire (SAQ), a survey instrument measuring dimensions of workplace safety culture (Safety Climate, Teamwork Climate, Perceptions of Management, Job Satisfaction, Working Conditions, and Stress Recognition). We included full-time and part-time paramedics and emergency medical technicians. We determined the variation in safety culture scores across EMS agencies. Using hierarchical linear models, we determined associations between safety culture scores and individual and EMS agency characteristics. Results. We received 1,715 completed surveys from 61 EMS agencies (mean agency response rate 47%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 10%, 83%). There was wide variation in safety culture scores across EMS agencies [mean (minimum, maximum)]: Safety Climate 74.5 (min 49.9, max 89.7), Teamwork Climate 71.2 (min 45.1, max 90.1), Perceptions of Management 67.2 (min 31.1, max 92.2), Job Satisfaction 75.4 (min 47.5, max 93.8), Working Conditions 66.9 (min 36.6, max 91.4), and Stress Recognition 55.1 (min 31.3, max 70.6). Air medical EMS agencies tended to score higher across all safety culture domains. Lower safety culture scores were associated with increased annual patient contacts. Safety Climate domain scores were not associated with other individual or EMS agency characteristics. Conclusion. In this sample, workplace safety culture varies between EMS agencies.

Sleep Quality and Fatigue Among Prehospital Providers

Abstract Background. Fatigue is common among medical professionals and has been linked to poor performance and medical error. Objective. To characterize sleep quality and its association with severe fatigue in emergency medical services (EMS) providers. Methods. We studied a convenience sample of EMS providers who completed three surveys: the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), the Chalder Fatigue Questionnaire (CFQ), and a demographic survey. We used established measures to examine survey psychometrics and performed t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and chi-square tests to identify differences in PSQI and CFQ scores. Results. One hundred nineteen surveys were completed. The eight-hour shift was most commonly reported (35.4%%). A majority of subjects were overweight (41.9%%) or obese (42.7%%), and 59.6%% had been diagnosed with one or more health conditions (e.g., diabetes). Results from psychometric tests were positive. The mean (± standard deviation) PSQI score was 9.2 (± 3.7). A CFQ score ≥4, indicating severe mental and physical fatigue, was present in 44.5%% of the subjects. The mean PSQI score was higher among those reporting severe fatigue (11.3 ± 3.2) than among those not reporting fatigue (7.5 ± 3.0, p < 0.0001). Conclusions. The results from this study suggest that the sleep quality and fatigue status of EMS workers are at unhealthy levels. The health and safety of the EMS worker and patient population should be considered in light of these results.

Association of Race and Ethnicity With Management of Abdominal Pain in the Emergency Department

OBJECTIVE: To determine if race/ethnicity-based differences exist in the management of pediatric abdominal pain in emergency departments (EDs). METHODS: Secondary analysis of data from the 2006–2009 National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey regarding 2298 visits by patients ≤21 years old who presented to EDs with abdominal pain. Main outcomes were documentation of pain score and receipt of any analgesics, analgesics for severe pain (defined as ≥7 on a 10-point scale), and narcotic analgesics. Secondary outcomes included diagnostic tests obtained, length of stay (LOS), 72-hour return visits, and admission. RESULTS: Of patient visits, 70.1% were female, 52.6% were from non-Hispanic white, 23.5% were from non-Hispanic black, 20.6% were from Hispanic, and 3.3% were from “other” racial/ethnic groups; patients’ mean age was 14.5 years. Multivariate logistic regression models adjusting for confounders revealed that non-Hispanic black patients were less likely to receive any analgesic (odds ratio [OR]: 0.61; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.43–0.87) or a narcotic analgesic (OR: 0.38; 95% CI: 0.18–0.81) than non-Hispanic white patients (referent group). This finding was also true for non-Hispanic black and “other” race/ethnicity patients with severe pain (ORs [95% CI]: 0.43 [0.22–0.87] and 0.02 [0.00–0.19], respectively). Non-Hispanic black and Hispanic patients were more likely to have a prolonged LOS than non-Hispanic white patients (ORs [95% CI]: 1.68 [1.13–2.51] and 1.64 [1.09–2.47], respectively). No significant race/ethnicity-based disparities were identified in documentation of pain score, use of diagnostic procedures, 72-hour return visits, or hospital admissions. CONCLUSIONS: Race/ethnicity-based disparities exist in ED analgesic use and LOS for pediatric abdominal pain. Recognizing these disparities may help investigators eliminate inequalities in care.

Ambulance stretcher adverse events

Introduction: Ambulance personnel use wheeled stretchers for moving patients in the out-of-hospital setting. The nature of adverse events and associated injuries occurring during ambulance stretcher operation was characterised. Methods: Data from the United States Food and Drug Administration’s Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience Database (MAUDE) were used. All adverse events involving ambulance stretchers during the years 1996–2005 were identified. The nature of the event, the method of stretcher handling, the individuals injured and the nature of the resulting injuries were identified. Results: There were 671 reported adverse events. The most common adverse events were stretcher collapse (54%; 95% CI 50 to 57%), broken, missing or malfunctioning part (28%; 95% CI 25 to 32%) and dropped stretcher (7%; 95% CI 5 to 9%). Adverse events most commonly occurred during unloading of the stretcher from the ambulance (16%; 13 to 19%). Injuries occurred in 121 events (18%; 95% CI 15 to 21%), most often involving sprains/strains (29%), fractures (16%) and lacerations/avulsions (13%). There were three traumatic brain injuries and three deaths. Patients sustained injuries in 52 events (43%), and ambulance personnel sustained injuries in 64 events (53%). More than one individual sustained injuries in 12 events. Conclusion: Adverse events may occur during ambulance stretcher operation and can result in significant injury to patients and ambulance personnel.

Network analysis of team communication in a busy emergency department.

BackgroundThe Emergency Department (ED) is consistently described as a high-risk environment for patients and clinicians that demands colleagues quickly work together as a cohesive group. Communication between nurses, physicians, and other ED clinicians is complex and difficult to track. A clear understanding of communications in the ED is lacking, which has a potentially negative impact on the design and effectiveness of interventions to improve communications. We sought to use Social Network Analysis (SNA) to characterize communication between clinicians in the ED.MethodsOver three-months, we surveyed to solicit the communication relationships between clinicians at one urban academic ED across all shifts. We abstracted survey responses into matrices, calculated three standard SNA measures (network density, network centralization, and in-degree centrality), and presented findings stratified by night/day shift and over time.ResultsWe received surveys from 82% of eligible participants and identified wide variation in the magnitude of communication cohesion (density) and concentration of communication between clinicians (centralization) by day/night shift and over time. We also identified variation in in-degree centrality (a measure of power/influence) by day/night shift and over time.ConclusionsWe show that SNA measurement techniques provide a comprehensive view of ED communication patterns. Our use of SNA revealed that frequency of communication as a measure of interdependencies between ED clinicians varies by day/night shift and over time.

The Association between EMS Workplace Safety Culture and Safety Outcomes

Abstract Background. Prior studies have highlighted wide variation in emergency medical services (EMS) workplace safety culture across agencies. Objective. To determine the association between EMS workplace safety culture scores and patient or provider safety outcomes. Methods. We administered a cross-sectional survey to EMS workers affiliated with a convenience sample of agencies. We recruited these agencies from a national EMS management organization. We used the EMS Safety Attitudes Questionnaire (EMS-SAQ) to measure workplace safety culture and the EMS Safety Inventory (EMS-SI), a tool developed to capture self-reported safety outcomes from EMS workers. The EMS-SAQ provides reliable and valid measures of six domains: safety climate, teamwork climate, perceptions of management, working conditions, stress recognition, and job satisfaction. A panel of medical directors, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, and occupational epidemiologists developed the EMS-SI to measure self-reported injury, medical errors and adverse events, and safety-compromising behaviors. We used hierarchical linear models to evaluate the association between EMS-SAQ scores and EMS-SI safety outcome measures. Results. Sixteen percent of all respondents reported experiencing an injury in the past three months, four of every 10 respondents reported an error or adverse event (AE), and 89% reported safety-compromising behaviors. Respondents reporting injury scored lower on five of the six domains of safety culture. Respondents reporting an error or AE scored lower for four of the six domains, while respondents reporting safety-compromising behavior had lower safety culture scores for five of the six domains. Conclusions. Individual EMS worker perceptions of workplace safety culture are associated with composite measures of patient and provider safety outcomes. This study is preliminary evidence of the association between safety culture and patient or provider safety outcomes.