Matthew E. Poehner

DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

The focus of this paper is on the implementation of Dynamic Assessment (henceforth, DA) in the L2 classroom setting. DA is an approach to assessment and instruction derived from Vygotsky’s theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (henceforth, ZPD). In what follows, we will first discuss briefly the concept of the ZPD and its realization in DA procedures; next we will briefly discuss the work of Reuven Feuerstein, whose work on DA is most directly relevant to the goal of the present article (for a discussion of other models of DA, see Lantolf and Poehner, 2004; Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2002); finally, we will compare DA to Formative Assessment (henceforth, FA) and will suggest how FA might be reconceptualized according to DA principles. In the language testing literature, FA is usually contrasted with Summative Assessment on the grounds that the former is intended to feed back into the teaching and learning process while the latter reports on the outcomes of learning (Bachman, 1990: 60-61). Moreover, FA procedures are generally considered to be less systematic and not as high-stakes as summative assessments. Following Rea-Dickins and Gardner (2000), however, we suggest that FA is not necessarily low-stakes and that it can be carried out quite systematically, yielding results that may be more systematic and revealing with regard to learner development than summative assessments.

Dynamic assessment in the classroom: Vygotskian praxis for second language development

This article reports the efforts of an elementary school teacher of Spanish as a second language to implement principles of dynamic assessment (DA) in her daily interactions with learners. DA is neither an assessment instrument nor a method of assessing but a framework for conceptualizing teaching and assessment as an integrated activity of understanding learner abilities by actively supporting their development (Poehner, 2008). DA is based on Vygotsky’s (1987) proposal of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which underscores the developmental importance of providing appropriate support to learners to help them stretch beyond their independent performance. The particular approach to DA that the teacher followed reflected her interpretation of the ZPD as well as her knowledge of her instructional context and was arrived at through consultation with the present authors. In other words, her use of DA represents a unification of theory and practice, as advocated by Vygotsky, whereby theory offers a basis to guide practice but at the same time practice functions to refine and extend theory. Examples of the teacher’s interactions with learners in her classroom are discussed with regard to the opportunities for development they create.

Bringing the ZPD into the equation: Capturing L2 development during Computerized Dynamic Assessment (C-DA)

Dynamic Assessment (DA) derives from Vygotsky’s (1987) insight that the use of mediation, attuned to learner needs, enables learners to perform beyond their current level of functioning, thereby providing insights into emerging capabilities. The instructional quality of mediation means that this process simultaneously creates possibilities for development, even over the course of a single session, a phenomenon referred to as ‘microgenesis’ (Wertsch, 1985). An important feature of DA is transfer, or transcendence: the process of tracking learner development as it unfolds not only with regard to control of tasks included in an assessment but also more complex and difficult tasks that build on those included in the original instrument (Campione, Brown, Ferrera, & Bryant, 1984; Feuerstein, Rand, & Hoffman, 1979; Poehner, 2007). The present study reports on the use of DA principles in tests of second language (L2) listening and reading comprehension delivered through an online format. The tests, which incorporate mediation, include transfer items to determine the extent to which learner development is supported during the test. This process generates three scores: actual (to capture unmediated performance); mediated (reflecting responsiveness to assistance provided on each test item); and a learning potential score (based on gain between actual and mediated performance) that indicates how much investment in future instructional activity is likely required for development to move forward.

Vygotsky's Teaching-Assessment Dialectic and L2 Education: The Case for Dynamic Assessment

This article concerns a particular application of Vygotskys concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) wherein conventional assessment situations are reorganized to allow for cooperation between assessor and learner as they jointly complete assessment tasks and work through difficulties that arise. This approach, known as Dynamic Assessment (DA), a term coined by Luria (1961), derives from Vygotskys own work in the area of “defectology” and aims to reveal abilities that have fully developed as well as those that are still forming. Several models of DA have been developed and pursued in countries around the world, primarily in contexts of intelligence and abilities testing and in work with learners with special needs (Haywood & Lidz, 2007). We argue that DA in fact has profound implications not only for formal testing but for educational practice more generally, and for language education in particular, given that it posits a dialectical relation between instruction and assessment. Specifically, joint activity intended to reveal a learners ZPD and the provision of mediation to support continued development are fully integrated in DA. Examples of this dialectical activity are presented involving classroom learners of French as a second language.

Sociocultural Theory and the Pedagogical Imperative in L2 Education : Vygotskian Praxis and the Research/Practice Divide

CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Theory/Practice Gap in Applied Linguistics Chapter 2 Sociocultural Theory and the Dialectic of Praxis: An Alternative to the Theory/Research-Practice Gap Chapter 3 Psychology of the Social Environment Chapter 4 A Theory of Developmental Education Chapter 5 L2 Systemic Theoretical Instruction: Experimental-Developmental Studies Chapter 6 L2 Systemic Theoretical Instruction: Intact Classroom Studies Chapter 7 The Zone of Proximal Development and Dynamic Assessment Chapter 8 Dynamic Assessment and L2 Development Chapter 9 Conclusion References

Frames of interaction in Dynamic Assessment: developmental diagnoses of second language learning

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), first proposed by the Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky, is frequently cited as the theoretical basis behind Dynamic Assessment (DA). However, this concept has led to varied interpretations and practices in education. This paper outlines readings of the ZPD that motivate many current approaches to DA and argues that the full potential of Vygotsky’s proposal is realised through what he described as collective, transformative activity undertaken with learners. Through close analysis of transcribed interactions between a mediator and second language (L2) learners, we argue that this activity unfolds through the co‐construction of collaborative and cooperative interactional frames. These allow for the integration of diagnosing and promoting learner development by alternately foregrounding the process of working through assessment tasks and going beyond those tasks to pursue other questions and problems.

Computerized dynamic assessment (C-DA): Diagnosing L2 development according to learner responsiveness to mediation

Dynamic assessment (DA) derives from the sociocultural theory of mind as elaborated by Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky. By offering mediation when individuals experience difficulties and carefully tracing their responsiveness, Vygotsky (1998) proposed that diagnoses may uncover abilities that have fully formed as well as those still in the process of developing. This insight has led to numerous assessments, collectively referred to as DA, that have been pursued primarily in the domains of special education and general cognitive abilities measurement (Feuerstein, Feuerstein, & Falik, 2010; Haywood & Lidz, 2007). To date, L2 DA work has been primarily conducted in classroom settings (Ableeva, 2010; Lantolf & Poehner, 2011; Poehner, 2007, 2008). This paper discusses a recent project concerning the design of online multiple-choice tests of L2 reading and listening comprehension that leverage the principle that mediation is indispensable for diagnosing development. Specifically, each test item is accompanied by a set of prompts graduated from implicit to explicit. In this way, resultant diagnoses include not only whether learners answered correctly (their actual score) but also the amount of support they required (mediated score) during the test. We argue that the set of scores automatically generated by the tests, together with a breakdown of learner performance on items targeting particular component features of comprehension, provide a fine-grained diagnosis of their L2 development while also offering information relevant to subsequent teaching and learning.

Dynamic Assessment: Fairness through the Prism of Mediation.

Dynamic Assessment (DA) originated in the writings of L.S. Vygotsky more than 80 years ago, and despite its popularity among a small community of specialists it is not widely pursued by educational researchers. This paper seeks to strengthen dialogue between DA proponents and the broader assessment community by identifying potential contributions DA may offer to considering such pressing questions as how assessment may support teaching and learning and how fairness in education may be pursued. It is argued that the defining feature of DA that cuts across the varied approaches that have been developed by psychologists and educators working in diverse contexts around the world is a commitment to looking beyond learner independent performance and examining contribution to joint activity as central to diagnosing abilities. This position prompts a view of teaching and assessment as integrated activity and approaches fairness through the provision of culturally available forms of support. Attention then turns to trends in DA research that are elaborated in the articles in this special issue.

The unfairness of equal treatment: objectivity in L2 testing and dynamic assessment

This paper considers dynamic assessment (DA) as it relates to second language (L2) development. DA is grounded in Vygotskys (1987) sociocultural theory of mind, which holds that human consciousness emerges as a result of participation in culturally organized social activities where mediation plays a key role in guiding development. In DA, the evidential basis for diagnosing and promoting development includes independent as well as mediated performance. Unlike in conventional testing, objectivity derives not from standardization, which treats everyone in precisely the same manner; rather, objectivity is argued on the grounds that mediation is guided by a viable theory of mind. Fairness in assessment is thus reframed with the understanding that the quality of support offered may vary across individuals. The paper illustrates how this transpires in the case of classroom-based and formal testing applications of DA with L2 learners.

L2 development around tests: Learner response processes and dynamic assessment

Abstract This paper examines learner response processes during a Dynamic Assessment (DA) of L2 reading comprehension. We present a detailed case analysis of an L2 French learner whose success in responding to a comprehension item obscures her understanding of the text and the challenges it poses. This aligns with research indicating that learners may orient to such assessments as problem-solving rather than comprehension activities (Rupp, Fern, and Choi 2006). In DA, learner response processes are externalized through dialogue with the assessor, or mediator, who does not simply document these processes but intervenes. We trace how the mediator regulates learner orientation to the task, pursues reasons behind learner choices, and cooperates with the learner to create opportunities for learning during the assessment.