Matthew Graham

Foreign Policy in Transition: The ANC's Search for a Foreign Policy Direction during South Africa's Transition, 1990–1994

Abstract At the beginning of the transition from apartheid to democracy, the African National Congress (ANC) was unprepared for foreign policy discussion, a lack of readiness magnified by the collapse of international Communism and the Cold War ideology. President De Klerk and the National Party controlled foreign policy in the early years of the transition and began the process of reintegration with the international community, The ANC initially struggled to adapt to the new international situation, whereas De Klerk was successful in wooing the international community. In the later stages of transition, the ANC developed a greater sense of direction and substance in foreign relations, although there were differences of opinion among and between the leadership and the rank and file. Already in 1994 there was evidence of tension between idealism and pragmatism. Post-apartheid foreign policy under Mandela was riddled with inconsistencies, which stemmed from the events of South Africas transition

Coming in from the cold: the Transitional Executive Council and South Africa's reintegration into the international community

South Africas ‘miraculous’ transition from apartheid to democracy, 1990–1994, has been widely investigated in the current literature, but the activities of the Transitional Executive Council, and, more importantly, those of its composite sub-councils have been neglected. This study analyses the significant influence the Sub Council on Foreign Affairs (SCFA) had on the shape of South Africas foreign policy after April 1994. The influence the Department of Foreign Affairs had over the organisation and activities of the SCFA is also explored. In shaping the final recommendations of the Sub Council, so that they closely represented those of the Department, the SCFAs proposals also reflected the norms and values of the wider international community. It is argued that entrenched domestic and international interests ‘captured’ the new South Africas foreign policy, seriously impinging on the African National Congresss room for manoeuvre internationally and ultimately acting as a significant factor in accounting for the countrys perceived inconsistent foreign policy after 1994.

100 Years of Struggle: Mandela's ANC

In the centenary year of the African National Congress (ANC), Heidi Holland’s latest book, 100 Years of Struggle: Mandela’s ANC, sets out to explore the tumultuous historical trajectory of the movement since its inception in 1912. This is an accessible and easy-toread account which provides a general survey of the ANC over the course of its history. In doing so, 100 Years of Struggle examines many of the key events and decisions that have influenced and shaped the development and progression of the ANC, allowing Holland to draw parallels between the different eras. Although, ostensibly about the ANC and Nelson Mandela, the book does not solely confine itself to these two subjects; it also addresses, in more generalised terms, the history and legacy of the wider struggle against apartheid.

Campaigning Against Apartheid: The Rise, Fall and Legacies of the South Africa United Front 1960–1962

ABSTRACT The international struggle against apartheid that emerged during the second half of the twentieth century made the system of legalised racial oppression in South Africa one of the world’s great moral causes. Looking back at the anti-apartheid struggle, a defining characteristic was the scope of the worldwide efforts to condemn, co-ordinate, and isolate the country. In March 1961, the international campaign against apartheid achieved its first major success when Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd chose to withdraw South Africa from the Commonwealth following vocal protests at the Heads of State Summit held in London. As a consequence, it appeared albeit briefly, that external pressure would effectively serve as a catalyst for achieving far-reaching and immediate political change in South Africa. The global campaign, centred on South Africa remaining in the Commonwealth, was the first of its kind launched by South Africa’s national liberation movements, and signalled the beginning of thirty years of continued protest and lobbying. The contributions from one organisation that had a role in launching and co-ordinating this particular transnational campaign, the South Africa United Front (SAUF), an alliance of liberation groups, have been largely forgotten. Leading members of the SAUF claimed the organisation had a key part in South Africa’s subsequent exit from the Commonwealth, and the purpose of this article is to explore the validity of such assertions, as well as the role and impact it had in generating a groundswell of opposition to apartheid in the early 1960s. Although the SAUF’s demands for South Africa to leave the Commonwealth were ultimately fulfilled, the documentary evidence suggests that its campaigning activities and impact were not a decisive factor; however the long-term significance of the SAUF, and the position it had in the rise of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) has not been fully recognised. As such, the events around the campaign for South Africa’s withdrawal from the Commonwealth act as a microcosm of developments that would define the international struggle against apartheid.

How Long will South Africa Survive? The Looming Crisis

Many will get pleasure in this book from the lavish illustrations of pieces displayed in the British Library exhibition. Some will no doubt see gaps, given that it was almost impossible to cover the past and present of such a vast region. One misleading sentence comes in a paragraph on the Nigerian civil war where Karin Barber and Stephanie Newell write that, in the majors’ coup of January 1966, ‘They assassinated the prime minister, Ahmadu Bello ...’ (p. 115) Readers might not realise that Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto, was prime minister of the then Northern region; the majors also assassinated Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the Federal prime minister.

Making Freedom: apartheid, squatter politics, and the struggle for home

This fascinating and thought-provoking book by Anne-Maria Makhulu, Making Freedom, explores the informal settlements of Cape Town, and the lives and experiences of its black squatter residents. For anyone who has visited Cape Town, it remains a deeply segregated city, far more so than other South African urban areas, with its residents living in distinct parallel worlds. Under apartheid, the migrant black population were deemed illegal by influx controls and impeded by job reservation for the city’s white and coloured residents, forcing arrivals to squat on the margins of the city in informal settlements such as Crossroads. The spatial layout of the city today retains its exclusionary racial character, with housing, transport, amenities, and jobs unequally distributed; in many respects these divides have only deepened since 1994. However, the mainstream academic narrative of contemporary South Africa remains firmly rooted in the anti-apartheid struggle, and the political and economic progress of democracy, which often neglects the reality of the everyday experience. The focus of this book therefore is to examine Cape Town’s informal settlements during and after apartheid in order to map the continuities and discontinuities of these two eras, and explore the agency, activism and survival techniques of its residents. Making Freedom provides an important new insight into our thinking about South African society, which argues that we must acknowledge

Book Review: Africa EmergesAfrica Emerges by RotbergRobert I.Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013. 269pp., £55.00 (h/b), ISBN 9780745661629

to another novel idea of which he was aware, namely, ‘anti-intellectualism’ (p. 10). By this he means the actions of dyed-in-the-wool traditionalists in the group, who quelled any reform initiatives and privileged sentiments over enquiry in the name of awaiting this ‘divine’. Kandil insightfully links these new trends within the group to the founding fathers Sayyid Qutb and Hassan Banna. The conclusion, for Kandil, is political ineptitude and incompetence in government, before the group’s fall from power in July 2013. The Brotherhood ‘underestimated the masses’ or ‘[overestimated] its ability to direct them using religion’ (p. 142). Kandil pins down ideological inefficiency as the cause of the failure of the group, allowing him to avoid the current polarisation of being either with or against the Brotherhood and also to refrain from predicting the unpredictable future of an ongoing ‘revolution’. Nevertheless, external elements such as the role of the egocentric state of Egypt and its ideological state apparatuses can still be further portrayed or even counter-balanced against the internal mutations of the Brotherhood.

Book Review: Inside South Africa’s Foreign Policy: Diplomacy in Africa from Smuts to Mbeki

asserts that ‘sub-Saharan Africa almost for the first time in more than 60 years has a golden interlude in which it and its peoples can take advantage of the abundant new opportunities’ (p. 2). The book sets about examining a series of opportunities and challenges that the continent faces, including demographic growth, education levels, peace and stability, the role of China, political governance and future economic prospects. The book provides a useful and informative insight into many developments that have had a positive effect upon millions of African people. Importantly, Rotberg does also examine the negative aspects of each theme and the potential pitfalls that may stall future progress. The chapter on mobile phones and technology as a driver of economic growth (M-PESA in Kenya) and political transparency (in Zimbabwe) is particularly good and serves as an important indicator of how the continent can ‘emerge’. For Africa to fulfil its potential, Rotberg raises two main arguments: the continent requires good governance and enlightened leadership. Citing Botswana and Mauritius as exemplars of nations that others should seek to emulate, Africa Emerges employs plenty of case studies and an impressive set of evidence and data to support its points, which clearly demonstrate many encouraging occurrences. Africa Emerges is a useful book that introduces many important points, but in its efforts to emphasise the positives, the analysis often brushes over themes that do not neatly fit with the overall argument. For example, it would have benefited from a detailed analysis of what booming economies actually mean for African societies or the extent to which these developments have facilitated deeper, genuine changes. Rotberg has a tendency to make points that bear little relation to the overwhelming reality, such as ‘elephants trample village gardens and lions and leopards take cattle’ (p. 43). Such throwaway comments hardly aid the main thrust of the book. The final concluding point that a political school for African politicians should be established (p. 215) to improve leadership and governance is startling in its characterisation of the continent, and simply unrealistic.

Mandela’s Kinsmen: Nationalist Elites & Apartheid’s First Bantustan

In an important counterpoint to the mainstream historiography on contemporary South Africa that predominantly focuses on urban, mass political activities, in Mandela’s Kinsmen Timothy Gibbs has dir...

Book Review: Asia and the Pacific: Routledge Handbook of African Politics

Since its establishment during the Lebanese Civil War, Hezbollah has emerged as both an influential player within Lebanese domestic politics and an important regional actor. Hezbollah enjoys a longstanding and robust alliance with Iran, has a history of frequent conflict with Israel and is currently playing an important role in the Syrian civil war in support of the Assad government. Therefore, given Hezbollah’s increasing importance on the regional stage, understanding the origins, history and ideology of the organisation are of critical importance and is the objective of this interesting text. The first section of the book is devoted to detailing Hezbollah’s inception and early history during the tumultuous period of the Lebanese Civil War. The text effectively discusses Hezbollah’s complex rivalry with Amal (a fellow Lebanese Shiite organisation), its indifferent historical relationship with Syria, and its close political, military and religious alliance with Iran. The text demonstrates that ‘resistance’ to Israel is the founding and fundamental principle of Hezbollah’s ideology and, consequently, has led to frequent clashes with Israel, including a major war in 2006. At times due to the dizzying array of actors involved in the Lebanese Civil War, along with a structure that is sometimes difficult to follow, the text’s overarching narrative or arguments are difficult to discern. This is likely to be especially so for a reader unfamiliar with the myriad different factions and actors involved in Lebanon during this period. Nonetheless, and despite this, overall the text is effective at introducing and explaining Hezbollah’s ideology and policies during this period, and how they impacted on Lebanon’s domestic politics and stability. The book also contains a number of useful primary documents produced by Hezbollah throughout its history. This provides the reader with an insight into the organisation’s ideological viewpoint and objectives, as well as demonstrating how it has harnessed such language to advance its own domestic political objectives. The book also contains a summary of the various actors and factions involved in Lebanese politics, with this likely to be of particular value to any reader new to this complex subject. As a result, although in places this book would have benefited from a clearer structure, it is nonetheless a worthwhile text for anyone interested in the birth and evolution of Hezbollah and its role within contemporary Lebanese politics and the wider Middle East region.