Matthew J. Krizo

Methodology for comparing worldwide performance of diverse weight-constrained high energy laser systems

The Air Force Institute of Technologys Center for Directed Energy has developed a software model, the High Energy Laser End-to-End Operational Simulation (HELEEOS), under the sponsorship of the High Energy Laser Joint Technology Office (JTO), to facilitate worldwide comparisons across a broad range of expected engagement scenarios of expected performance of a diverse range of weight-constrained high energy laser system types. HELEEOS has been designed to meet JTOs goals of supporting a broad range of analyses applicable to the operational requirements of all the military services, constraining weapon effectiveness through accurate engineering performance assessments allowing its use as an investment strategy tool, and the establishment of trust among military leaders. HELEEOS is anchored to respected wave optics codes and all significant degradation effects, including thermal blooming and optical turbulence, are represented in the model. The model features operationally oriented performance metrics, e.g. dwell time required to achieve a prescribed probability of kill and effective range. Key features of HELEEOS include estimation of the level of uncertainty in the calculated Pk and generation of interactive nomographs to allow the user to further explore a desired parameter space. Worldwide analyses are enabled at five wavelengths via recently available databases capturing climatological, seasonal, diurnal, and geographical spatial-temporal variability in atmospheric parameters including molecular and aerosol absorption and scattering profiles and optical turbulence strength. Examples are provided of the impact of uncertainty in weight-power relationships, coupled with operating condition variability, on results of performance comparisons between chemical and solid state lasers.

A first principles atmospheric propagation & characterization tool: the laser environmental effects definition and reference (LEEDR)

The Air Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energy (AFIT/CDE) has developed a first principles atmospheric propagation and characterization model called the Laser Environmental Effects Definition and Reference or LEEDR. This package enables the creation of profiles of temperature, pressure, water vapor content, optical turbulence, and atmospheric particulates and hydrometeors as they relate to line-by-line layer extinction coefficient magnitude at wavelengths from the UV to the RF. Worldwide seasonal, diurnal, and geographical variability in these parameters is accessed from probability density function (PDF) databases using a variety of recently available resources to include the Extreme and Percentile Environmental Reference Tables (ExPERT), the Master Database for Optical Turbulence Research in Support of the Airborne Laser, and the Global Aerosol Data Set (GADS). GADS provides aerosol constituent number densities on a 5° x 5° grid worldwide. ExPERT mapping software allows the LEEDR operator to choose from specific site or regional upper air data to characterize correlated molecular absorption, aerosol absorption and scattering by percentile. The integration of the Surface Marine Gridded Climatology database, the Advanced Navy Aerosol Model (ANAM), and the Navy Surface Layer Optical Turbulence (NSLOT) model provides worldwide coverage over all ocean regions on a 1° x 1° grid. Molecular scattering is computed based on Rayleigh theory. Molecular absorption effects are computed for the top 13 absorbing species using line strength information from the HITRAN 2004 database in conjunction with a community standard molecular absorption continuum code. Aerosol scattering and absorption are computed with the Wiscombe Mie model. Each atmospheric particulate/hydrometeor is evaluated based on its wavelength-dependent forward and off-axis scattering characteristics and absorption effects on laser energy delivered at any wavelength from 0.355 μm to 8.6 m. LEEDR can also produce correlated optical turbulence profiles in percentile format. In addition, probability of cloud free line of sight (CFLOS) for hundreds of land sites worldwide is available in LEEDR. Effects of layers of fog, several types of rain and several types of water droplet and ice clouds can also be considered. In addition to describing some of the underlying theory to the LEEDR calculations, this paper presents graphical results for several different scenarios. These generic scenarios are meant to exemplify how LEEDR enables the physically realistic data capture of atmospheric effects on electromagnetic propagation.

A Computational Tool for Evaluating THz Imaging Performance in Brownout Conditions at Land Sites Throughout the World

This study quantifies terahertz (THz) or sub-millimeter imaging performance during simulated rotary-wing brownout or whiteout environments based on geographic location and recent/current atmospheric weather conditions. The atmospheric conditions are defined through the Air Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energy (AFIT/CDE) Laser Environmental Effects Definition and Reference or LEEDR model. This model enables the creation of vertical profiles of temperature, pressure, water vapor content, optical turbulence, and atmospheric particulates and hydrometeors as they relate to line-by-line layer extinction coefficient magnitude at wavelengths from the UV to the RF. Optical properties and realistic particle size distributions for the brownout and whiteout particulates have been developed for and incorporated into LEEDR for this study. The expected imaging performance is assessed primarily at a wavelength of 454 μm (0.66 THz) in brownout conditions at selected geographically diverse land sites throughout the world. Seasonal and boundary layer variations (summer and winter) and time of day variations for a range of relative humidity percentile conditions are considered to determine optimum employment techniques to exploit or defeat the environmental conditions. Each atmospheric particulate/hydrometeor is evaluated based on its wavelength-dependent forward and off-axis scattering characteristics and absorption effects on the imaging environment. In addition to realistic vertical profiles of molecular and aerosol absorption and scattering, correlated optical turbulence profiles in probabilistic (percentile) format are used. Most evaluated scenarios are brownout environments over ranges up to 50 meters. At submillimeter wavelengths and the short ranges studied, preliminary results indicate the main source of image degradation in brownout conditions is water vapor content, even with visibility less than 10 m and strong optical turbulence.

A worldwide physics-based high spectral resolution atmospheric characterization and propagation package for UV to RF wavelengths

The Air Force Institute of Technologys Center for Directed Energy (AFIT/CDE) developed the High Energy Laser End-to-End Operational Simulation (HELEEOS) model in part to quantify the performance variance in laser propagation created by the natural environment during dynamic engagements. As such, HELEEOS includes a fast-calculating, first principles, worldwide surface-to-100 km, atmospheric propagation and characterization package. This package enables the creation of profiles of temperature, pressure, water vapor content, optical turbulence, atmospheric particulates and hydrometeors as they relate to line-by-line layer transmission, path and background radiance at wavelengths from the ultraviolet to radio frequencies. Physics-based cloud and precipitation characterizations are coupled with a probability of cloud free line-of-sight algorithm for all possible look angles. HELEEOS was developed under the sponsorship of the High Energy Laser Joint Technology Office. In the current paper an example of a unique high fidelity simulation of a bi-static, time-varying five band multispectral remote observation of laser energy delivered on a test object is presented. The multispectral example emphasizes atmospheric effects using HELEEOS, the interaction of the laser on target and the observed reflectance and subsequent hot spot generated. A model of a sensor suite located on the surface is included to collect the diffuse reflected in-band laser radiation and the emitted radiance of the hot spot in four separate and spatially offset MWIR and LWIR bands. Particular care is taken in modeling the bidirectional reflectivity distribution function (BRDF) of the laser/target interaction to account for both the coupling of energy into the target body and the changes in reflectance as a function of temperature. The architecture supports any platform-target-observer geometry, geographic location, season, and time of day; and it provides for correct contributions of the sky-earth background. The simulation accurately models the thermal response, kinetics, turbulence, base disturbance, diffraction, and signal-to-noise ratios.

Worldwide estimates and uncertainty assessments of laser propagation for diverse geometries for paths in the altitude regime of 3 km and below at wavelengths 0.355 μm to 10.6 μm

The directed energy modeling and simulation community can make important direct contributions to the joint warfighting community by establishing clear and fully integrated future program requirements. These requirements are best determined via analysis of the expected variability/uncertainty in system performance arising from spatial, spectral and temporal variations in operating conditions. In this study of atmospheric effects on HEL systems, the parameter space is explored using the Air Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energys (AFIT/CDE) High Energy Laser End-to-End Operational Simulation (HELEEOS) parametric one-on-one engagement level model. HELEEOS is anchored to respected wave optics codes and all significant degradation effects-including optical turbulence and molecular, aerosol, and liquid water drop/droplet absorption and scattering-are represented in the model. Beam spread effects due to thermal blooming caused by the various absorbers are considered when appropriate. Power delivered in a 5 cm diameter circular area normalized by the total transmitted power is the primary performance metric used in the study, with results presented in the form of histograms. The expected performance of laser systems operating at both low and high powers is assessed at 24 wavelengths between 0.355 &mgr;m and 10.6 &mgr;m for a number of widely dispersed land and maritime locations worldwide. Scenarios evaluated include both up and down looking generally oblique engagement geometries over ranges up to 6000 meters in which anticipated clear air aerosols and thin layers of fog, and very light rain are simulated. Seasonal and boundary layer variations (summer and winter) for nighttime conditions for a range of relative humidity percentile conditions are considered to determine optimum employment techniques to exploit or defeat the environmental conditions. Each atmospheric particulate/obscurant is evaluated based on its wavelength-dependent forward and off-axis scattering characteristics and absorption effects on laser energy delivered. In addition to realistic vertical profiles of molecular and aerosol absorption and scattering, correlated optical turbulence profiles in probabilistic (percentile) format are used, a feature unique to HELEEOS.

Worldwide uncertainty assessments of ladar and radar signal-to-noise ratio performance for diverse low altitude atmospheric environments

In this study of atmospheric effects on laser ranging and detection (ladar) and radar systems, the parameter space is explored using the Air Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energys (AFIT/CDE) High Energy Laser End-to-End Operational Simulation (HELEEOS) parametric one-on-one engagement level model. The expected performance of ladar systems is assessed at a representative wavelength of 1.557 µm at a number of widely dispersed land and maritime locations worldwide. Radar system performance is assessed at 95 GHz and 250 GHz. Scenarios evaluated include both down looking oblique and vertical engagement geometries over ranges up to 3000 meters in which clear air aerosols and thin layers of fog, locally heavy rain, and low stratus cloud types are expected to occur. Seasonal and boundary layer variations are considered to determine optimum employment techniques to exploit or defeat the environmental conditions. Each atmospheric particulate/obscurant/hydrometeor is evaluated based on its wavelength-dependent forward and off-axis scattering characteristics and absorption effects on system interrogation. Results are presented in the form of worldwide plots of notional signal to noise ratio. The ladar and 95 GHz system types exhibit similar SNR performance for forward oblique clear air operation. 1.557 µm ladar performs well for vertical geometries in the presence of ground fog, but has no near-horizontal performance under such meteorological conditions. It also has no performance if low altitude stratus is present. 95 GHz performs well for both the fog and stratus layer cases, for both vertical and forward oblique geometries. The 250 GHz radar system is heavily impacted by water vapor absorption in all scenarios studied; however it is not as strongly affected by clouds and fog as the 1.557 µm ladar. Locally heavy rain will severely limit ladar system performance at these wavelengths. However, under heavy rain conditions ladar outperforms both radar systems.

Worldwide Mission Planning Tool for Tactical Laser Systems

The directed energy modeling and simulation community can make important direct contributions to the joint warfighting community by providing the capability to estimate expected performance of high energy laser systems on a worldwide basis over both land and ocean regions accounting for variability in system performance arising from spatial, spectral and temporal variations in operating conditions. Key recently introduced features of theAir Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energy’s high energy laser end-toend operational simulation parametric one-on-one engagement level model allow it to meet modeling and simulation needs and function as a near term mission planning tool. These features include the capability to derive vertical profiles of atmospheric effects based probabilisticclimatology,historicalweatherreanalysisgrids,orreal-timeforecastmodelsavailable on-line. Each atmospheric gas or particulate is evaluated based on its wavelength-dependent forward and off-axis scattering characteristics and absorption effects on electromagnetic energy delivered at any wavelength from 0.4 μm to 8.6m. High energy laser end-to-end operational simulation can produce profiles, including correlated optical turbulence profiles in percentile format, from probabilistic climatology for over 400 land sites worldwide for all times of day and for a 1 ◦ × 1 ◦ grid over all ocean locations. In addition, probability of cloud free line of sight for hundreds of land sites worldwide is available in the model. Target surface orientation is defined in three-dimensional space, supporting accurate assessment of the effectiveness of a particular engagement geometry. Effects of thin layers of fog, several types of rain and several types of water droplet and ice clouds can also be considered. In the current study, performance predictions at several wavelengths for a number of geographically diverse land and sea locations are made using numerical weather reanalysis data and are compared with results derived from probabilistic climatology. Use of web-based

Effectiveness Assessment of Tactical Laser Engagement Scenarios in the Lower Atmosphere

This study quantifies the effectiveness of proposed high-energy tactical laser missions, such as the Advanced Tactical Laser Advanced Concept Technical Demonstration and the Electric Laser on a Large Aircraft program, with consideration of simulated engagement scenarios in the lower atmosphere or troposphere, and establishes the need for a high-energy laser tactical decision aid. The simulations can be varied by geographic location and recent/ current atmospheric weather conditions. The atmospheric effects are defined through the Air Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energy high-energy laser end-to-end operational simulation model. This model enables the creation of vertical profiles of temperature, pressure, water vapor content, optical turbulence, and atmospheric particulates and hydrometeors as they relate to line-by-line layer extinction coefficient magnitude at wavelengths from the ultraviolet to the radio frequency. The expected propagation performance is assessed at the wavelength of 1:315 m in tactical laser engagement scenarios at a representative midlatitude site. Seasonal and boundary-layer variations (summer and winter) and time-of-day variations for a range of relative humidity percentile conditions are considered to determine optimum efficiency in a specific environment. Each atmospheric particulate/hydrometeor is evaluated based on its wavelength-dependent forward and off-axis scattering characteristics and absorption effects on the propagating environment. In addition to realistic vertical profiles of molecular and aerosol absorption and scattering, correlated optical turbulence profiles in probabilistic (percentile) format are used. The physically correct atmospheric characterizations used in a high-energy laser end-to-end operational simulation demonstrate the usefulness of implementing an engineering performancemodel with current meteorological conditions to a mission plan and optimize potential tactical high-energy laser combat engagements.

Modeling bistatic spectral measurements of temporally evolving reflected and emitted energy from a distant and receding target

The Air Force Institute of Technologys Center for Directed Energy developed the High Energy Laser End-to-End Operational Simulation (HELEEOS) model in part to quantify the performance variability in laser propagation created by the natural environment during dynamic engagements. As such, HELEEOS includes a fast-calculating, first principles, worldwide surface-to-100 km, atmospheric propagation, and characterization package. This package enables the creation of profiles of temperature, pressure, water vapor content, optical turbulence, atmospheric particulates, and hydrometeors as they relate to line-by-line layer transmission, path, and background radiance at wavelengths from the ultraviolet to radio frequencies. In the current paper an example of a unique high fidelity simulation of a bistatic, time-varying five band multispectral remote observation of energy delivered on a distant and receding test object is presented for noncloudy conditions with aerosols. The multispectral example emphasizes atmospheric effects using HELEEOS, the interaction of the energy and the test object, the observed reflectance, and subsequent hot spot generated. A model of a sensor suite located on the surface is included to collect the diffuse reflected in-band laser radiation and the emitted radiance of the hot spot in four separate and spatially offset midwave infrared and longwave infrared bands. Particular care is taken in modeling the bidirectional reflectance distribution function of the delivered energy/target interaction to account for both the coupling of energy into the test object and the changes in reflectance as a function of temperature. The architecture supports any platform-target-observer geometry, geographic location, season, and time of day, and it provides for correct contributions of the sky-earth background. The simulation accurately models the thermal response, kinetics, turbulence, base disturbance, diffraction, and signal-to-noise ratios.

Effects of Thermal Blooming on Systems Comprised of Tiled Subapertures

Laser weapon systems comprise of tiled subapertures are rapidly emerging in the directed energy community. The Air Force Institute of Technology Center for Directed Energy (AFIT/CDE), under sponsorship of the HEL Joint Technology Office has developed performance models of such laser weapon system configurations consisting of tiled arrays of both slab and fiber subapertures. These performance models are based on results of detailed waveoptics analyses conducted using WaveTrain. Previous performance model versions developed in this effort represent system characteristics such as subaperture shape, aperture fill factor, subaperture intensity profile, subaperture placement in the primary aperture, subaperture mutual coherence (piston), subaperture differential jitter (tilt), and beam quality wave-front error associated with each subaperture. The current work is a prerequisite for the development of robust performance models for turbulence and thermal blooming effects for tiled systems. Emphasis is placed on low altitude tactical scenarios. The enhanced performance model developed will be added to AFIT/CDEs HELEEOS parametric one-on-one engagement level model via the Scaling for High Energy Laser and Relay Engagement (SHaRE) toolbox.