Matthew Pelowski

M-Pesa: A Case Study of the Critical Early Adopters’ Role in the Rapid Adoption of Mobile Money Banking in Kenya

This study reviews key factors that led to the phenomenal growth of mobile money banking services in Kenya using M‐PESA, “mobile cash money”, the leading mobile money service provider as a case study. The study considers the outstanding challenges experienced by users, possible solutions and future trends. These aspects are covered through a critical review of existing literature, secondary data and a survey targeting mobile phone users living in the major urban centers, considered to be the early adopters of new technologies in Kenya. Several lessons learnt from the mobile money rollout in this Kenyan experience are identified for future researchers and practitioners.

Visualizing the Impact of Art: An Update and Comparison of Current Psychological Models of Art Experience

The last decade has witnessed a renaissance of empirical and psychological approaches to art study, especially regarding cognitive models of art processing experience. This new emphasis on modeling has often become the basis for our theoretical understanding of human interaction with art. Models also often define areas of focus and hypotheses for new empirical research, and are increasingly important for connecting psychological theory to discussions of the brain. However, models are often made by different researchers, with quite different emphases or visual styles. Inputs and psychological outcomes may be differently considered, or can be under-reported with regards to key functional components. Thus, we may lose the major theoretical improvements and ability for comparison that can be had with models. To begin addressing this, this paper presents a theoretical assessment, comparison, and new articulation of a selection of key contemporary cognitive or information-processing-based approaches detailing the mechanisms underlying the viewing of art. We review six major models in contemporary psychological aesthetics. We in turn present redesigns of these models using a unified visual form, in some cases making additions or creating new models where none had previously existed. We also frame these approaches in respect to their targeted outputs (e.g., emotion, appraisal, physiological reaction) and their strengths within a more general framework of early, intermediate, and later processing stages. This is used as a basis for general comparison and discussion of implications and future directions for modeling, and for theoretically understanding our engagement with visual art.

Clarifying the interaction types in two-person neuroscience research

Human brains and behaviors are shaped, and normally function, in continuous interaction with other humans (Hari and Kujala, 2009). However, because of the methodological difficulties related to the complex dynamics of interaction situations, neural mechanisms underlying interactive behavior remain one of the most poorly understood areas of neuroscience (Hari et al., 2013). Previous neuroscience research has argued that social processes enabling us to interact with others are internalized and hence can be understood by investigating individual brains (see Konvalinka and Roepstorff, 2012). Based on this assumption, neuroscience studies have mainly examined social cognition from a perception perspective by presenting single participants with socially-relevant pictures or videos (Lieberman, 2007). Although this has led to identification of a set of regions composing our “social brain,” such as amygdala, orbital frontal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, and mirror neuron system (Frith, 2007), little is still known about how these brain regions function and transfer information between brains in dynamic, real-time interactions. Especially, more recent ideas have proposed that social cognition may be fundamentally different when an individual does engage in an interaction, rather than when one just observes the situation itself (Schilbach, 2010).

Tears and transformation: feeling like crying as an indicator of insightful or “aesthetic” experience with art

This paper explores a fundamental similarity between cognitive models for crying and conceptions of insight, enlightenment or, in the context of art, “aesthetic experience.” All of which center on a process of initial discrepancy, followed by schema change, and conclude in a proposed adjustment or “transformation” of ones self image/world-view. Because tears are argued to mark one of the only physical indicators of this cognitive outcome, and because the process is particularly salient in examples with art, I argue that crying may provide an intriguing marker for empirical study of art experience. To explore this parallel, I offer a review of crying theory as well as of tearful cases with art, pointing out the key cognitive elements. I then introduce an expanded crying model, based upon our recent model of art experience which does consider insight and adjustment or application of the self. I also consider multiple emotional and evaluative factors, which may co-vary with crying response. This theoretical discussion is then applied in three exploratory, survey-based studies conducted within U.K., Japan and U.S. museums, and including what is claimed to be the 20th centurys most tear-inducing abstract paintings. Results showed—with cross-cultural consistency—significant relation between “feeling like crying” and a collection of responses posited to indicate a full progression to aesthetic experience, as well as to positive assessment of artwork goodness, beauty, understanding of meaning, and to final reported self reflection and epiphany. I argue that, beyond the question of why we may cry, by considering the implications of what tears may indicate within information processing, feeling like crying may indeed offer a compelling basis for empirically identifying outcomes of perceptual (art) experience.

Near-infrared spectroscopy as a tool for driving research

Abstract Driving a motor vehicle requires various cognitive functions to process surrounding information, to guide appropriate actions, and especially to respond to or integrate with numerous contextual and perceptual hindrances or risks. It is, thus, imperative to examine driving performance and road safety from a perspective of cognitive neuroscience, which considers both the behaviour and the functioning of the brain. However, because of technical limitations of current brain imaging approaches, studies have primarily adopted driving games or simulators to present participants with simulated driving environments that may have less ecological validity. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a relatively new, non-invasive brain-imaging technique allowing measurement of brain activations in more realistic settings, even within real motor vehicles. This study reviews current NIRS driving research and explores NIRS’ potential as a new tool to examine driving behaviour, along with various risk factors in natural situations, promoting our understanding about neural mechanisms of driving safety. Practitioner Summary: Driving a vehicle is dependent on a range of neurocognitive processing abilities. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a non-invasive brain-imaging technique allowing measurement of brain activation even in on-road studies within real motor vehicles. This study reviews current NIRS driving research and explores the potential of NIRS as a new tool to examine driving behaviour.

Appraisal of a copresent observer as supportive activates the left inferior parietal lobule: a near-infrared spectroscopy study using a driving video game.

The role of the presence of others in a social context has been debated widely. Although the importance of mutual cognitive functions between performer and observer is generally accepted, little is known about the neural correlates of paired performers and observers themselves. In this near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) study we measured the activation in the bilateral inferior parietal lobule (IPL) when driver–observer pairs of participants performed a driving video game task. The performer’s task was to drive from start to goal using a default route map, while their partner observed the performance. According to the performer’s subjective appraisal of the copresent observer obtained after the driving task, the pairs were divided into three groups: supportive, nonsupportive, and neutral. The driving time, error, and tension score did not show significant differences between the three groups. However, NIRS data of performers in the supportive group showed significantly higher activation in the left IPL than those in the nonsupportive group, but not in the right IPL. NIRS data of observers in the concerned two groups did not show significant differences bilaterally in IPL. These results suggest that the left IPL distinctively responds according to a performer’s cognitive appraisal of a copresent observer.

Empathy, Einfühlung, and aesthetic experience: the effect of emotion contagion on appreciation of representational and abstract art using fEMG and SCR

Since the advent of the concept of empathy in the scientific literature, it has been hypothesized, although not necessarily empirically verified, that empathic processes are essential to aesthetic experiences of visual art. We tested how the ability to “feel into” (“Einfühlung”) emotional content—a central aspect of art empathy theories—affects the bodily responses to and the subjective judgments of representational and abstract paintings. The ability to feel into was measured by a standardized pre-survey on “emotional contagion”—the ability to pick up and mirror, or in short to “feel into”, emotions, which often overlaps with higher general or interpersonal empathetic abilities. Participants evaluated the artworks on several aesthetic dimensions (liking, valence, moving, and interest), while their bodily reactions indicative of empathetic engagement (facial electromyography—EMG, and skin conductance responses—SCR) were recorded. High compared to low emotion contagion participants showed both more congruent and more intense bodily reactions (EMG and SCR) and aesthetic evaluations (higher being moved, valence, and interest) and also liked the art more. This was largely the case for both representational and abstract art, although stronger with the representational category. Our findings provide tentative evidence for recent arguments by art theorists for a close “empathic” mirroring of emotional content. We discuss this interpretation, as well as a potential tie between emotion contagion and a general increase in emotion intensity, both of which may impact, in tandem, the experience and evaluation of art.

But Is It really Art? The Classification of Images as “Art”/“Not Art” and Correlation with Appraisal and Viewer Interpersonal Differences

When an individual participates in empirical studies involving the visual arts, they most often are presented with a stream of images, shown on a computer, depicting reproductions of artworks by respected artists but which are often not known to the viewer. While art can of course be shown in presentia actuale—e.g., in the museum—this laboratory paradigm has become our go-to basis for assessing interaction, and, often in conjunction with some means of rating, for assessing evaluative, emotional, cognitive, and even neurophysiological response. However, the question is rarely asked: Do participants actually believe that every image that they are viewing is indeed “Art”? Relatedly, how does this evaluation relate to aesthetic appreciation, and do the answers to these questions vary in accordance with different strategies and interpersonal differences? In this paper, we consider the spontaneous classification of digital reproductions as art or not art. Participants viewed a range of image types—Abstract, Hyperrealistic, Poorly Executed paintings, Readymade sculptures, as well as Renaissance and Baroque paintings. They classified these as “art” or “not art” using both binary and analog scales, and also assessed for liking. Almost universally, individuals did not find all items within a class to be “art,” nor did all participants agree on the arthood status for any one item. Art classification in turn showed a significant positive correlation with liking. Whether an object was classified as art moreover correlated with specific personality variables, tastes, and decision strategies. The impact of these findings is discussed for selection/assessment of participants and for better understanding the basis of findings in past and future empirical art research.

Computerizing Primary Schools in Rural Kenya: Outstanding Challenges and Possible Solutions

This paper investigates the outstanding challenges facing primary schools’ computerization in rural Kenya. Computerization of schools is often envisaged as a ‘magic’, or at least a particularly efficient, solution to many of the problems that developing countries face in improving primary school education. However, while a great deal of consideration is given to the technical issues surrounding computer implementation, government policy makers, administrators, aid organizations and individuals participating in school computerization programs often have not carefully considered the contextual questions surrounding this endeavour. Specifically: 1.) what problems do rural schools actually want to solve with computerization; 2.) is computerization the most important priority for rural schools; 3.) are schools ready, in terms of infrastructure, for a computer in the classroom; or 4.) might there be better avenues for implementing access to the benefits of the digital age? These questions and the issue of school computerization are considered via results from a survey of thirty‐seven rural Kenyan primary public schools. Results indicate that, while all schools had low ICT status making them primary targets for computerization, only eleven percent had at least one ICT compliant teacher, of which all were considered to require further training. In addition we found inadequate infrastructural preparedness – lack of access to electricity, internet; no classroom computer space, few desks, secure walls and protective roofing – posing severe challenges to the outstanding conception of computerization. We consider these results and make recommendations for better adapting programs for computer introduction, and also suggest the use of new innovative devices, such as cell phones, which might already have overcome many of the technical challenges found.

Social risky decision-making reveals gender differences in the TPJ: A hyperscanning study using functional near-infrared spectroscopy

HighlightsWe study inter‐brain processes of risky behavior in face‐to‐face interactions.NIRS data reveal higher activations in risky decisions in the OFC, mPFC, and TPJ.Males and females show different inter‐brain synchronizations in risky decisions. Abstract Previous neuroscience studies have investigated neural correlates of risky decision‐making in a single‐brain frame during pseudo social (predominantly non face‐to‐face) contexts. To fully understand the risky decision‐making behavior in more natural social interactions, the present study employed a functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning technique to simultaneously measure pairs of participants’ fronto‐temporal activations in a face‐to‐face gambling card‐game. The intra‐brain results revealed that both those who identified as males and as females showed higher activations in their mPFC and in the inferior parts of the frontopolar area, as well as in the tempo‐parietal junction (TPJ) in cases involving higher versus lower risk. This is consistent with previous findings suggesting importance of the mentalizing network in decision tasks. The fNIRS results of inter‐brain neural synchronization (INS) also revealed that males and females showed increased inter‐brain coherence in the mPFC and dlPFC. Females, however, uniquely showed increased inter‐brain coherence in the left TPJ. This INS result suggests that males may primarily depend on non‐social cognitive ability to make a risky decision in a social interaction, while females may use both social and non‐social cognitive abilities. The implications are also discussed for general topics of human interaction and two‐person neuroscience.