Matthew S. Kerner

Attitudinal, social, and practical correlates to fitness behavior: A test of the theory of planned behavior

Professional management personnel (N = 73) who exercise were studied to assess the efficacy of the theory of planned behavior in predicting intention to exercise and amount of exercise. Four rating scales were used for the assessment of attitude toward fitness, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intention to exercise. In addition, frequency of exercise was measured and recorded for five months. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that 26.6% of the variance of intention to exercise was contributed by both fitness attitude and subjective norm, with the unique contribution of attitude toward fitness (part r = .36) slightly greater than that of subjective norm (part r = .33). 8% of the unique variance of exercise was explained by intention to exercise. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses also indicated that perceived behavioral control did not account for a significant variance in intention to exercise but did account for a significant variance in amount of exercise (R2 change = .21). In the environment in which it was tested, results support the theory of planned behavior for understanding the exercise behavior of professional management personnel who exercise.

Anaerobic power characteristics of elite athletes in national level team-sport games

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to acquire current anthropometric and physiological profiling of elite athletes and to examine differences in the characteristics. Methods: Three hundred and sixteen male, team-sport athletes were evaluated for anaerobic performance using the Wingate anaerobic test. Results: MANOVA procedures indicated significant differences in height among players of the sports. Pearson correlations indicated strong correlations for body mass with absolute peak power (Pp) and mean power (Pm), and relative Pm. Height correlated strongly with absolute Pp and Pm, with a low correlation with relative Pp. MANOVA procedures indicated that athletes who specialized in handball, volleyball, and basketball attained the greatest relative and absolute Pp, and the greatest relative Pm. Relative and absolute Pp of the soccer athletes were lowest of all other elite athletes. Conclusion: This study introduces normative values for elite male athletes, empowering coaches in the evaluation of anaerobic abilities and in the objective selection of athletes for competition

Leisure-time physical activity, sedentary behavior, and fitness of high school girls.

Background: Childhood physical inactivity may exacerbate other behaviorally linked cardiovascular disease risk factors such as hypertension, and hyperlipidemia, which have been associated with subsequent morbidity and mortality later in life. Evidence suggests that physical activity as adults is related to their exercise patterns as children. Methods: Television watching and Internet use time were evaluated for one week, and their relationships to various physical fitness parameters among 129 high school girls were assessed. Leisure-time physical activity, quantified by a 21-day physical activity diary and a compendium of physical activities with metabolic equivalent (MET) intensities, and attitudinal belief to leisure-time physical activity were compared to all the aforementioned variables. Results: No significant correlations were found between television watching time or Internet use time with body mass index, one-mile run time, and three different operational definitions of leisure-time physical activity. One-mile run time correlated moderately with body mass index and negatively with leisure-time physical activity. Caloric expenditure during lei-sure-time physical activity was weakly related to body mass index. Attitudinal belief to leisure-time physical activity correlated significantly with leisure-time physical activity, weekly caloric expenditure, and inversely with one-mile run time. The foremost predictor of mile-run time was body mass index, followed by attitudinal belief to leisure-time physical activity and leisure-time physical activity. Conclusions: Leisure-time physical activity and attitudinal belief to leisure-time physical activity are significantly (and inversely) associated with physical fitness only when expressed by an actual performance measure, but not when represented by the sum of the skinfold measurements, body fat, or body mass index. Physical fitness is unrelated to Internet use time or television watching time. Furthermore, since these sedentary behaviors are unrelated to leisure-time physical activity, yet positively correlated with each other, it is suggested that time spent watching television or on the Internet does not occur at the expense of leisure-time physical activity.

The Theory of Planned Behavior as Related to Intention to Exercise and Exercise Behavior

In a previously reported study we sought to assess the usefulness of the theory of planned behavior in explaining the exercise behavior of 73 adults enrolled in an exercise program over a 5-mo. period. The correlation between scores on Intention to Exercise and Exercise Behavior was moderate and inverse, conflicting with a primary tenet of the Theory of Planned Behavior. In this analysis of the data we sought to explain that finding by partitioning participants into groups based on a median split of their scores on Intention to Exercise and Exercise Behavior. Using the four Intention by Behavior groups as independent variables and scale scores as dependent variables, post hoc tests for Fitness Attitude showed significant differences only when High Intention conflicted with Low Intention, irrespective of Exercise Behavior. Perceived Behavioral Control showed opposite tendencies, i.e., differences were significant when High Behavior conflicted with Low Behavior, irrespective of Intention to Exercise. We conclude that Perceived Behavioral Control defines ones ultimate Exercise Behavior over a 5-mo. period while scores on Fitness Attitude define Intentions to Exercise.

SCALE CONSTRUCTION FOR MEASURING ADOLESCENT BOYS' AND GIRLS' ATTITUDES, BELIEFS, PERCEPTION OF CONTROL, AND INTENTION TO ENGAGE IN LEISURE-TIME PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Using the Theory of Planned Behavior as a framework, the Attitude to Leisure-time Physical Activity, Expectations of Others, Perceived Control, and Intention to Engage in Leisure-time Physical Activity scales were developed for use among high school students. The study population included 20 boys and 68 girls 13 to 17 years of age (for boys, M=15.1 yr., SD=1.0; for girls, M= 15.0 yr., SD= 1.1). Generation of items and the establishment of content validity were performed by professionals in exercise physiology, physical education, and clinical psychology. Each scale item was phrased in a Likert type format. Both unipolar and bipolar scales with seven response choices were developed. Following the pilot testing and subsequent revisions, 32 items were retained in the Attitude to Leisure-time Physical Activity scale. 10 items were retained in the Expectations of Others scale, 3 items were retained in the Perceived Control Scale, and 24 items were retained in the Intention to Engage in Leisure-time Physical Activity scale. Coefficients indicated adequate stability and internal consistency with α ranging from .81 to .96. Studies of validities are underway, after which scales would be made available to those interested in intervention techniques for promoting positive attitudes toward physical fitness, perception of control over engaging in leisure-lime physical activities, and good intentions to engage in leisure-time physical activities. The present results arc encouraging.

Leisure-time physical activity: operationally defined as time, work, and intensity

This study was designed to examine whether different determinants exist for expressing leisure-time physical activity (LTPA). LTPA was operationalized to represent time, work, and intensity to determine whether these variables measure the same construct. The theoretical model chosen to investigate LTPA was the theory of planned behavior. Rating scales assessed the perceived control (PC) and the intention to engage in LTPA (Int) among 129 high school girls. Using a compendium of physical activities with MET values, LTPA was assessed with a 21-day physical activity diary. LTPA behavior was operationally defined as duration in minutes (PA-time), work in total METs × minutes (PA-work), and average intensity per minute (PA-mean intensity). Pearson correlations, reliability analyses for rating scales, and hierarchical multiple regression procedures were used. Correlational analyses showed a strong relationship between PA-time and PA-work (r = .89, p < .001). PA-mean intensity was significantly related to PA-time (r = .36, p < .001) and PA-work (r = .53, p < .001). The total explained variability for the predictor variables of Int, PC, and the interaction of Int × PC was 9.8%, 18.0%, and 13.1% for the criterion variables of PA-time, PA-work, and PA-mean intensity, respectively. In conclusion, it appears that PA-time and PA-work are measuring the same construct, whereas PA-mean intensity measures possibly a different construct. Within the framework of the theory of planned behavior, the three LTPA determinants explicated substantially different amounts of variance explained with PA-work, predicted better by theory expectations.

ANAEROBIC POWER CHARACTERISTICS OF ELITE ATHLETES IN NATIONAL LEVEL TEAM-SPORT GAMES

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to acquire current anthropometric and physiological profiling of elite athletes and to examine differences in the characteristics. Methods: Three hundred and sixteen male, team-sport athletes were evaluated for anaerobic performance using the Wingate anaerobic test. Results: MANOVA procedures indicated significant differences in height among players of the sports. Pearson correlations indicated strong correlations for body mass with absolute peak power (Pp) and mean power (Pm), and relative Pm. Height correlated strongly with absolute Pp and Pm, with a low correlation with relative Pp. MANOVA procedures indicated that athletes who specialized in handball, volleyball, and basketball attained the greatest relative and absolute Pp, and the greatest relative Pm. Relative and absolute Pp of the soccer athletes were lowest of all other elite athletes. Conclusion: This study introduces normative values for elite male athletes, empowering coaches in the evaluation of anaerobic abilities and in the objective selection of athletes for competition.

THE THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR AS RELATED TO INTENTION TO EXERCISE AND EXERCISE BEHAVIOR

In a previously reported study we sought to assess the usefulness of the theory of planned behavior in explaining the exercise behavior of 73 adults enrolled in an exercise program over a 5-mo. period. The correlation between scores on Intention to Exercise and Exercise Behavior was moderate and inverse, conflicting with a primary tenet of the Theory of Planned Behavior. In this analysis of the data we sought to explain that finding by partitioning participants into groups based on a median split of their scores on Intention to Exercise and Exercise Behavior. Using the four Intention by Behavior groups as independent variables and scale scores as dependent variables, post hoc tests for Fitness Attitude showed significant differences only when High Intention conflicted with Low Intention, irrespective of Exercise Behavior. Perceived Behavioral Control showed opposite tendencies, i.e., differences were significant when High Behavior conflicted with Low Behavior, irrespective of Intention to Exercise. We conclude that Perceived Behavioral Control defines ones ultimate Exercise Behavior over a 5-mo. period while scores on Fitness Attitude define Intentions to Exercise.