Matthias Buchert

What Do We Know About Metal Recycling Rates

The recycling of metals is widely viewed as a fruitful sustainability strategy, but little information is available on the degree to which recycling is actually taking place. This article provides an overview on the current knowledge of recycling rates for 60 metals. We propose various recycling metrics, discuss relevant aspects of recycling processes, and present current estimates on global end‐of‐life recycling rates (EOL‐RR; i.e., the percentage of a metal in discards that is actually recycled), recycled content (RC), and old scrap ratios (OSRs; i.e., the share of old scrap in the total scrap flow). Because of increases in metal use over time and long metal in‐use lifetimes, many RC values are low and will remain so for the foreseeable future. Because of relatively low efficiencies in the collection and processing of most discarded products, inherent limitations in recycling processes, and the fact that primary material is often relatively abundant and low‐cost (which thereby keeps down the price of scrap), many EOL‐RRs are very low: Only for 18 metals (silver, aluminum, gold, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, niobium, nickel, lead, palladium, platinum, rhenium, rhodium, tin, titanium, and zinc) is the EOL‐RR above 50% at present. Only for niobium, lead, and ruthenium is the RC above 50%, although 16 metals are in the 25% to 50% range. Thirteen metals have an OSR greater than 50%. These estimates may be used in considerations of whether recycling efficiencies can be improved; which metric could best encourage improved effectiveness in recycling; and an improved understanding of the dependence of recycling on economics, technology, and other factors.

Developing a Life Cycle Inventory for Rare Earth Oxides from Ion-Adsorption Deposits: Key Impacts and Further Research Needs

Rare earth production from ion-adsorption deposits constitutes an important rare earth production route, and the most important production route for heavy rare earths such as dysprosium and terbium. The demand for dysprosium has experienced substantial growth in recent years, mainly due to its use in neodymium–iron–boron (Nd–Fe–B) magnets, the demand for which is increasing largely due to their use in efficient motor applications. Hence, the analysis of environmental impacts associated with rare earth mining and processing is gaining importance. In this study, a life cycle inventory for rare earth production from ion-adsorption deposits was compiled through a detailed analysis of the literature and with help from industry experts. A detailed review of the literature on environmental impacts associated with the mining process was also conducted, and impacts not covered by the current impact assessment methods are discussed. Despite the detailed study, data uncertainties remain. Therefore, recommendations for further research are given, including further investigations into the fate of emissions from in situ leaching of rare earths in the proximity of the mining site, and development of the methods used to assess resource extraction.

Recycling of Batteries from Electric Vehicles

The introduction of electromobility will lead to a significant increase of waste traction batteries within the next decade. Recycling of these batteries is currently a huge challenge as the necessary legislative framework, logistic concepts, and recycling processes are in an early stage of development. In the first part of this chapter, the legal situation in the largest markets (European Union, People’s Republic of China, and USA) is summarized and a forecast of traction battery return flows for cars and buses until 2025 is presented. The second part discusses the recycling chain including extraction of the batteries from end-of-life (EOL) vehicles, battery disassembly, and different approaches for cell recycling. The focus is on industrial efforts. In addition, economic and ecologic aspects are briefly addressed. The last part summarizes the main conclusions and highlights task fields to close the gaps in lithium-ion battery recycling.