Matthias M. Meier

NAIRAS aircraft radiation model development, dose climatology, and initial validation

[1] The Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation for Aviation Safety (NAIRAS) is a real-time, global, physics-based model used to assess radiation exposure to commercial aircrews and passengers. The model is a free-running physics-based model in the sense that there are no adjustment factors applied to nudge the model into agreement with measurements. The model predicts dosimetric quantities in the atmosphere from both galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particles, including the response of the geomagnetic field to interplanetary dynamical processes and its subsequent influence on atmospheric dose. The focus of this paper is on atmospheric GCR exposure during geomagnetically quiet conditions, with three main objectives. First, provide detailed descriptions of the NAIRAS GCR transport and dosimetry methodologies. Second, present a climatology of effective dose and ambient dose equivalent rates at typical commercial airline altitudes representative of solar cycle maximum and solar cycle minimum conditions and spanning the full range of geomagnetic cutoff rigidities. Third, conduct an initial validation of the NAIRAS model by comparing predictions of ambient dose equivalent rates with tabulated reference measurement data and recent aircraft radiation measurements taken in 2008 during the minimum between solar cycle 23 and solar cycle 24. By applying the criterion of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) on acceptable levels of aircraft radiation dose uncertainty for ambient dose equivalent greater than or equal to an annual dose of 1 mSv, the NAIRAS model is within 25% of the measured data, which fall within the ICRU acceptable uncertainty limit of 30%. The NAIRAS model predictions of ambient dose equivalent rate are generally within 50% of the measured data for any single-point comparison. The largest differences occur at low latitudes and high cutoffs, where the radiation dose level is low. Nevertheless, analysis suggests that these single-point differences will be within 30% when a new deterministic pion-initiated electromagnetic cascade code is integrated into NAIRAS, an effort which is currently underway.

Temporal and spatial evolution of the solar energetic particle event on 20 January 2005 and resulting radiation doses in aviation

The solar energetic particle event on 20 January 2005 was one of the largest ground level events ever observed. Neutron monitor stations in the Antarctic recorded count rate increases of several thousand percent caused by secondary energetic particles, and it took more than 36 h to return to background level. Such huge increases in high energetic solar cosmic radiation on the ground are obviously accompanied by considerable changes in the radiation environment at aviation altitudes. Measurements of 28 neutron monitor stations were used in this work to numerically approximate the primary solar proton spectra during the first 12 h of the event by minimizing the differences between measurements and the results of Monte-Carlo calculated count rate increases. The primary spectrum of solar energetic protons was approximated by a power law in rigidity and a linear angular distribution. The incoming direction of the solar energetic particles was determined and compared to the interplanetary magnetic field direction during the event. The effects on the radiation exposure at altitudes of about 12 km during that time were estimated to range from none at low latitudes up to almost 2 mSv/h for a very short time in the Antarctic region and about 0.1 mSv/h at high latitudes on the Northern Hemisphere. After 12 h, dose rates were still increased by 50% at latitudes above 60 degrees whereas no increases at all occurred at latitudes below 40 degrees during the whole event.

Cellular Monitoring of the Nuclear Factor κB Pathway for Assessment of Space Environmental Radiation

Abstract Baumstark-Khan, C., Hellweg, C. E., Arenz, A. and Meier, M. M. Cellular Monitoring of the Nuclear Factor κB Pathway for Assessment of Space Environmental Radiation. Radiat. Res. 164, 527–530 (2005). A screening assay for the detection of NF-κB-dependent gene induction using the destabilized variant of the reporter protein enhanced green fluorescent protein (d2EGFP) is used for assessing the biological effects of accelerated heavy ions as a model of space environmental radiation conditions. The time course of d2EGFP expression and therefore of activation of NF-κB-dependent gene expression was measured after treatment with TNFA or after heavy-ion exposure using flow cytometry. The reported experiments clearly show that accelerated argon ions (95 MeV/nucleon, LET 230 keV/μm) induce the NF-κB pathway at low particle densities (1–2 particle hits per nucleus), which result in as few as 5–50 induced DSBs per cell.

Dosimetry at aviation altitudes (2006–2008)

Based upon the European Union (EU)-Directive 96/29/EURATOM, legal regulations on the radiation protection of aircrew had to be implemented into the corresponding national law within the member states of the EU by 13 May 2000. In Article 42 the directive stipulates, among other things, that the exposure of the crew concerned shall be assessed. This requirement has been implemented by dose calculations for most aircrew members in the EU. Some airlines and research institutes regularly spot check the calculated doses by measuring flights. The solar minimum is a time period of particular interest since the dose rates at aviation altitudes reach their maximum within the 11-year solar cycle. For this reason, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) performed repeated measuring flights in cooperation with several German airlines during the past solar minimum from March 2006 to August 2008. The measuring devices used consisted of a tissue equivalent proportional counter, various types of Liulin semiconductor detectors and several bubble detectors.

Carbon-Ion-Induced Activation of the NF-κB Pathway

Carbon-ion cancer therapy offers several physical and radiobiological advantages over conventional photon cancer therapy. The molecular mechanisms that determine cellular outcome, including the activation of transcription factors and the alteration of gene expression profiles, after carbon-ion exposure are still under investigation. We have previously shown that argon ions (LET 272 keV/µm) had a much higher potential to activate the transcription factor nuclear factor &kgr;B (NF-&kgr;B) than X rays. NF-&kgr;B is involved in the regulation of cellular survival, mostly by antiapoptosis and cell cycle-regulating target genes, which are important in the resistance of cancer cells to radiotherapy. Therefore, activation of the NF-&kgr;B pathway by accelerated carbon ions (LET 33 and 73 keV/µm) was examined. For comparison, cells were exposed to 150 kV X rays and to accelerated carbon ions. NF-&kgr;B-dependent gene induction after exposure was detected in stably transfected human 293 reporter cells. Carbon ions and X rays had a comparable potential to activate NF-&kgr;B in human cells, indicating a comparable usefulness of pharmacological NF-&kgr;B inhibition during photon and carbon-ion radiotherapy.

Advances in Atmospheric Radiation Measurements and Modeling Needed to Improve Air Safety

Air safety is tied to the phenomenon of ionizing radiation from space weather, primarily from galactic cosmic rays but also from solar energetic particles. A global framework for addressing radiation issues in this environment has been constructed, but more must be done at international and national levels. Health consequences from atmospheric radiation exposure are likely to exist. In addition, severe solar radiation events may cause economic consequences in the international aviation community due to exposure limits being reached by some crew members. Impacts from a radiation environment upon avionics fromhigh-energy particles and low-energy, thermalized neutrons are now recognized as an area of active interest. A broad community recognizes that there are a number of mitigation paths that can be taken relative to the human tissue and avionics exposure risks. These include developing active monitoring and measurement programs as well as improving scientific modeling capabilities that can eventually be turned into operations. A number of roadblocks to risk mitigation still exist, such as effective pilot training programs as well as monitoring, measuring, and regulatorymeasures. An active international effort toward observing theweather of atmospheric radiation must occur to make progress in mitigating radiation exposure risks. Stakeholders in this process include standard-making bodies, scientific organizations, regulatory organizations, air traffic management systems, aircraft owners and operators, pilots and crew, and even the public.

Numerical calculation of the radiation exposure from galactic cosmic rays at aviation altitudes with the PANDOCA core model

The increased radiation exposure at aviation altitudes is of public interest as well as of legal relevance in many countries. The dose rates that are elevated compared to sea level are mainly caused by galactic cosmic ray particles interacting with the atmosphere and producing a complex radiation field at aviation altitudes. The intensity and composition of this radiation field mainly depend on altitude, geomagnetic shielding, and primary particle intensity. In this work, we present a model based on Monte Carlo simulations, which retrospectively estimates secondary particle fluence as well as ambient dose equivalent rates and effective dose rates at any point in the atmosphere. This model will be used as the physical core in the Professional Aviation Dose Calculator (PANDOCA) software developed by the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt) for the calculation of route doses in aviation. The calculations are based on galactic cosmic ray spectra taking into account primary nuclei from hydrogen to iron by direct transport calculations of hydrogen and helium nuclei and approximating heavier nuclei by the number of protons equaling the corresponding atomic number. A comparison to experimental data recorded on several flights with a tissue equivalent proportional counter shows a very good agreement between model calculations and measurements.

Activation of the Nuclear Factor κB pathway by heavy ion beams of different linear energy transfer

Abstract Purpose: Risk assessment of radiation exposure during long-term space missions requires the knowledge of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of space radiation components. Few data on gene transcription activation by different heavy ions are available, suggesting a dependence on linear energy transfer. The transcription factor Nuclear Factor κB (NF-κB) can be involved in cancerogenesis. Therefore, NF-κB activation by accelerated heavy ions of different linear energy transfer (LET) was correlated to survival. Materials and methods: NF-κB-dependent gene induction after exposure to heavy ions was detected in stably transfected human embryonic kidney 293 cells (HEK-pNF-κB-d2EGFP/Neo cells carrying a neomycin resistance), using the destabilized Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (d2EGFP) as reporter. Results: Argon (LET 272 keV/μm) and neon ions (LET 91 keV/μm) had the highest potential to activate NF-κB, resulting in a RBE of 8.9 in comparison to 150 kV X-rays. The RBE for survival also reached its maximum in this LET range, with a maximal value of 2. Conclusions: NF-κB might be involved in modulating survival responses of cells hit by heavy ions in the LET range of 91–272 keV/μm and could therefore become a factor to be considered for risk assessment of radiation exposure during space travel.

The ground level event 70 on December 13th, 2006 and related effective doses at aviation altitudes

The 70th ground level event in the records of the Neutron Monitor network occurred on 13 December 2006 reaching a maximum count rate increase at the Oulu station of more than 90 % during the 5 min interval 3.05-3.10 UTC. Thereafter, count rates gradually decreased registering increases of a few per cent above the galactic cosmic ray background after a few hours. The primary proton spectrum during the first 6 h after the onset of the event is characterised in this work by fitting the energy and angular distribution by a power law in rigidity and a linear dependence in the pitch angle using a minimisation technique. The results were obtained by analysing the data from 28 Neutron Monitor stations. At very high northern and southern latitudes, the effective dose rates were estimated to reach values of 25-30 microSv h(-1) at atmospheric depth of 200 g cm(-2) during the maximum of the event. The increase in effective dose during north atlantic and polar flights was estimated to be in the order of 20 %.

RaD‐X: Complementary Measurements of Dose Rates at Aviation Altitudes

The RaD-X stratospheric balloon flight organized by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was launched from Fort Sumner on 25 September 2015 and carried several instruments to measure the radiation field in the upper atmosphere at the average vertical cutoff rigidity Rc of 4.1 GV. The German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt) in cooperation with Lufthansa German Airlines supported this campaign with an independent measuring flight at the altitudes of civil aviation on a round trip from Germany to Japan. The goal was to measure dose rates under similar space weather conditions over an area on the Northern Hemisphere opposite to the RaD-X flight. Dose rates were measured in the target areas, i.e., around vertical cutoff rigidity Rc of 4.1 GV, at two flight altitudes for about 1 h at each position with acceptable counting statistics. The analysis of the space weather situation during the flights shows that measuring data were acquired under stable and moderate space weather conditions with a virtually undisturbed magnetosphere. The measured rates of absorbed dose in silicon and ambient dose equivalent complement the data recorded during the balloon flight. The combined measurements provide a set of experimental data suitable for validating and improving numerical models for the calculation of radiation exposure at aviation altitudes.