Matthieu Blanchet

Analysis of the Cytosolic Domains of the Hepatitis B Virus Envelope Proteins for Their Function in Viral Particle Assembly and Infectivity

ABSTRACT The hepatitis B virus (HBV) envelope proteins have the ability to assemble three types of viral particles, (i) the empty subviral particles (SVPs), (ii) the mature HBV virions, and (iii) the hepatitis delta virus (HDV) particles, in cells that are coinfected with HBV and HDV. To gain insight into the function of the HBV envelope proteins in morphogenesis of HBV or HDV virions, we have investigated subdomains of the envelope proteins that have been shown or predicted to lie at the cytosolic face of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane during synthesis, a position prone to interaction with the inner core structure. These domains, referred to here as cytosolic loops I and II (CYL-I and -II, respectively), were subjected to mutagenesis. The mutations were introduced in the three HBV envelope proteins, designated small, middle, and large (S-HBsAg, M-HBsAg, and L-HBsAg, respectively). The mutants were expressed in HuH-7 cells to evaluate their capacity for self-assembly and formation of HBV or HDV virions when HBV nucleocapsid or HDV ribonucleoprotein, respectively, was provided. We found that SVP-competent CYL-I mutations between positions 23 and 78 of the S domain were permissive to HBV or HDV virion assembly. One mutation (P29A) was permissive for synthesis of the S- and M-HBsAg but adversely affected the synthesis or stability of L-HBsAg, thereby preventing the assembly of HBV virions. Furthermore, using an in vitro infection assay based on the HepaRG cells and the HDV model, we have shown that particles coated with envelope proteins bearing CYL-I mutations were fully infectious, hence indicating the absence of an infectivity determinant in this region. Finally, we demonstrated that the tryptophan residues at positions 196, 199, and 201 in CYL-II, which were shown to exert a matrix function for assembly of HDV particles (I. Komla-Soukha and C. Sureau, J. Virol. 80:4648-4655, 2006), were dispensable for both assembly and infectivity of HBV virions.

The Pre-S1 and Antigenic Loop Infectivity Determinants of the Hepatitis B Virus Envelope Proteins Are Functionally Independent

ABSTRACT The hepatitis B virus (HBV) envelope proteins bear two determinants of viral entry: a receptor-binding site (RBS) in the pre-S1 domain of the large envelope protein and a conformation-dependent determinant, of unknown function, in the antigenic loop (AGL) of the small, middle, and large envelope proteins. Using an in vitro infection assay consisting of susceptible HepaRG cells and the hepatitis delta virus (HDV) as a surrogate of HBV, we first investigated whether subelements of the pre-S1 determinant (amino acids 2 to 75), i.e., the N-terminal myristoyl anchor, subdomain 2-48 (RBS), and subdomain 49-75, were functionally separable. In transcomplementation experiments, coexpression of two distinct infectivity-deficient pre-S1 mutants at the surface of HDV virions failed to restore infectivity, indicating that the myristoyl anchor, the 2-48 RBS, and the 49-75 sequence, likely cooperate in cis at viral entry. Furthermore, we showed that as much as 52% of total pre-S1 in the HDV envelope could bear infectivity-deficient lesions without affecting entry, indicating that a small number of pre-S1 polypeptides—estimated at three to four per virion—is sufficient for infectivity. We next investigated the AGL activity in the small or large envelope protein background (S- and L-AGL, respectively) and found that lesions in S-AGL were more deleterious to infectivity than in L-AGL, a difference that reflects the relative stoichiometry of the small and large envelope proteins in the viral envelope. Finally, we showed that C147S, an AGL infectivity-deficient substitution, exerted a dominant-negative effect on infectivity, likely reflecting an involvement of C147 in intermolecular disulfide bonds.

Use of FDA approved therapeutics with hNTCP metabolic inhibitory properties to impair the HDV lifecycle.

Worldwide there are approximately 240million individuals chronically infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV), including 15-20million coinfected with the hepatitis delta virus (HDV). Treatments available today are not fully efficient and often associated to important side effects and development of drug resistance. Targeting the HBV/HDV entry step using preS1-specific lipopeptides appears as a promising strategy to block viral entry for both HBV and HDV (Gripon et al., 2005; Petersen et al., 2008). Recently, the human Sodium Taurocholate Cotransporting Polypeptide (hNTCP) has been identified as a functional, preS1-specific receptor for HBV and HDV. This groundbreaking discovery has opened a very promising avenue for the treatment of chronic HBV and HDV infections. Here we investigated the ability of FDA approved therapeutics with documented inhibitory effect on hNTCP cellular function to impair viral entry using a HDV in vitro infection model based on a hNTCP-expressing Huh7 cell line. We demonstrate the potential of three FDA approved molecules, irbesartan, ezetimibe, and ritonavir, to alter HDV infection in vitro.

SKI-1/S1P inhibition: a promising surrogate to statins to block hepatitis C virus replication.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is often associated with steatosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Statins (HMG-CoAR inhibitors) have been shown to exert an antiviral effect in vitro, principally on replicon harboring cells, but the effect of their use alone in vivo remains controversial. In clinical trials, when used in combination with the standards of care (SOC), they led to an increased proportion of sustained virological responder (SVR). Here we investigated the implication of SKI-1/S1P, a master lipogenic pathways regulator upstream of HMG-CoAR, on different steps of HCV life cycle. We compared the HCV antiviral effect of the most potent SKI-1/S1P small molecule inhibitor (PF-429242) with a set of two statins on different steps of the viral life cycle, and showed that SKI-1/S1P inhibitor blocked HCVcc (strain JFH-1) RNA replication (EC(50)= 5.8 μM) more efficiently than statins. Moreover, we showed that PF-429242 could reduce lipid droplets accumulation in Huh7 cells. Interestingly, PF-429242 dramatically reduced infectious particles production (EC(90)= 4.8 μM). Such inhibition could not be achieved with statins. SKI-1/S1P activity is thus essential for viral production and its inhibition should be considered for antiviral drug development.

Plasma Membrane Tetraspanin CD81 Complexes with Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9 (PCSK9) and Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor (LDLR), and Its Levels Are Reduced by PCSK9.

Background: PCSK9 is a modulator of LDLR and the tetraspanin CD81. Results: Although CD81 is targeted for degradation by PCSK9 in an LDLR-independent manner, it can associate with the LDLR. Conclusion: CD81 and LDLR are two independent targets of PCSK9 that bind to each other. Significance: Structure-based mutagenesis of PCSK9 reveals functional interactions of CD81 with LDLR and PCSK9. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is an important factor in plasma cholesterol regulation through modulation of low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) levels. Naturally occurring mutations can lead to hyper- or hypocholesterolemia in human. Recently, we reported that PCSK9 was also able to modulate CD81 in Huh7 cells. In the present study, several gain-of-function and loss-of-function mutants as well as engineered mutants of PCSK9 were compared for their ability to modulate the cell surface expression of LDLR and CD81. Although PCSK9 gain-of-function D374Y enhanced the degradation both receptors, D374H and D129N seemed to only reduce LDLR levels. In contrast, mutations in the C-terminal hinge-cysteine-histidine-rich domain segment primarily affected the PCSK9-induced CD81 degradation. Furthermore, when C-terminally fused to an ACE2 transmembrane anchor, the secretory N-terminal catalytic or hinge-cysteine-histidine-rich domain domains of PCSK9 were able to reduce CD81 and LDLR levels. These data confirm that PCSK9 reduces CD81 levels via an intracellular pathway as reported for LDLR. Using immunocytochemistry, a proximity ligation assay, and co-immunoprecipitation, we found that the cell surface level of PCSK9 was enhanced upon overexpression of CD81 and that both PCSK9 and LDLR interact with this tetraspanin protein. Interestingly, using CHO-A7 cells lacking LDLR expression, we revealed that LDLR was not required for the degradation of CD81 by PCSK9, but its presence strengthened the PCSK9 effect.

Inhibition of hepatitis B viral entry by nucleic acid polymers in HepaRG cells and primary human hepatocytes

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a major public health concern worldwide with 240 million individuals chronically infected and at risk of developing cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Current treatments rarely cure chronic hepatitis B infection, highlighting the need for new anti-HBV drugs. Nucleic acid polymers (NAPs) are phosphorothioated oligonucleotides that have demonstrated a great potential to inhibit infection with several viruses. In chronically infected human patients, NAPs administration lead to a decline of blood HBsAg and HBV DNA and to HBsAg seroconversion, the expected signs of functional cure. NAPs have also been shown to prevent infection of duck hepatocytes with the Avihepadnavirus duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) and to exert an antiviral activity against established DHBV infection in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we investigated the specific anti-HBV antiviral activity of NAPs in the HepaRG human hepatoma cell line and primary cultures of human hepatocytes. NAPs with different chemical features (phosphorothioation, 2’O-methyl ribose, 5-methylcytidine) were assessed for antiviral activity when provided at the time of HBV inoculation or post-inoculation. NAPs dose-dependently inhibited HBV entry in a phosphorothioation-dependent, sequence-independent and size-dependent manner. This inhibition of HBV entry by NAPs was impaired by 2’O-methyl ribose modification. NAP treatment after viral inoculation did not elicit any antiviral activity.

SKI-1/S1P inhibitor PF-429242 impairs the onset of HCV infection

Worldwide, approximately 170 million individuals are afflicted with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. To prevent the development of inherent diseases such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, tremendous efforts have been made, leading to the development of promising new treatments. However, their efficiency is still dependent on the viral genotype. Additionally, these treatments that target the virus directly can trigger the emergence of resistant variants. In a previous study, we have demonstrated that a long-term (72h) inhibition of SKI-1/S1P, a master lipogenic pathway regulator through activation of SREBP, resulted in impaired HCV genome replication and infectious virion secretion. In the present study, we sought to investigate the antiviral effect of the SKI-1/S1P small molecule inhibitor PF-429242 at the early steps of the HCV lifecycle. Our results indicate a very potent antiviral effect of the inhibitor early in the viral lifecycle and that the overall action of the compound relies on two different contributions. The first one is SREBP/SKI-1/S1P dependent and involves LDLR and NPC1L1 proteins, while the second one is SREBP independent. Overall, our study confirms that SKI-1/S1P is a relevant target to impair HCV infection and that PF-429242 could be a promising candidate in the field of HCV infection treatment.

Nucleic acid polymers are active against Hepatitis Delta Virus infection in vitro.

ABSTRACT In this study, an in vitro infection model for the hepatitis delta virus (HDV) was used to evaluate the antiviral effects of phosphorothioate nucleic acid polymers (NAPs) and investigate their mechanism of action. The results show that NAPs inhibit HDV infection at concentrations less than 4 μM in cultures of differentiated human hepatoma cells. NAPs were shown to be active at viral entry but inactive postentry on HDV RNA replication. Inhibition was independent of the NAP nucleotide sequence but dependent on both size and amphipathicity of the polymer. NAP antiviral activity was effective against HDV virions bearing the main hepatitis B virus (HBV) immune escape substitutions (D144A and G145R) and was pangenomic with regard to HBV envelope proteins. Furthermore, similar to immobilized heparin, immobilized NAPs could bind HDV particles, suggesting that entry inhibition was due, at least in part, to preventing attachment of the virus to cell surface glycosaminoglycans. The results document NAPs as a novel class of antiviral compounds that can prevent HDV propagation. IMPORTANCE HDV infection causes the most severe form of viral hepatitis in humans and one of the most difficult to cure. Currently, treatments are limited to long-term administration of interferon at high doses, which provide only partial efficacy. There is thus an urgent need for innovative approaches to identify new antiviral against HDV. The significance of our study is in demonstrating that nucleic acid polymers (NAPs) are active against HDV by targeting the envelope of HDV virions. In an in vitro infection assay, NAP activity was recorded at concentrations less than 4 μM in the absence of cell toxicity. Furthermore, the fact that NAPs could block HDV at viral entry suggests their potential to control the spread of HDV in a chronically HBV-infected liver. In addition, NAP anti-HDV activity was pangenomic with regard to HBV envelope proteins and not circumvented by HBsAg substitutions associated with HBV immune escape.

Statins can exert dual, concentration dependent effects on HCV entry in vitro

Statins are used daily by a large and increasing number of individuals worldwide. They were initially designed as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutharyl-coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoAR) inhibitors to treat patients with hypercholesterolemia. Recent studies on HCV chronically infected individuals have suggested that their use in vivo in combination with PEG-IFN and ribavirin favor the sustained viral response (SVR). Herein, we describe the effects of a set of statins on HCV entry and on HCV key entry factors in vitro. Our results suggest that all tested statins exert a proviral effect through the upregulation of LDLR. Interestingly, at higher concentration, we also provide evidence of a yet unknown competing antiviral effect of statins (except for pravastatin) through the downregulation of CLDN-1. Importantly, this work enlightens the blunt proviral effect of pravastatin at the entry step of HCV in vitro.

LC3B is not recruited along with the autophagy elongation complex (ATG5-12/16L1) at HCV replication site and is dispensable for viral replication

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is known to induce autophagosome accumulation as observed by the typical punctate cytoplasmic distribution of LC3B-II in infected cells. Previously, we showed that viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NS5B) interacts with ATG5, a major component of the autophagy elongation complex that is involved in the formation of double-membrane vesicles (DMV), and demonstrated that the autophagy elongation complex (ATG5-12/16L1) but not LC3B is required for proper membranous web formation. In this study, the colocalization and in situ interaction of all HCV replicase components with the constituent of the autophagy elongation complex and LC3B were analyzed. The results clearly show the recruitment of the elongation complex to the site of viral replication. Using in situ proximity ligation assay, we show that ATG5, but not ATG16L1, interacts with several HCV replicase components suggesting that the recruitment is directed via the ATG5-12 conjugate. Interestingly, no E3-like conjugation activity of ATG5-12/16L1 can be detected at the at HCV replication site since LC3B-II is not found along with the elongation complex at the site of viral replication. In agreement with this result, no sign of in situ interaction of LC3B with the replicase components is observed. Finally, using dominant negative forms of ATG proteins, we demonstrate that ATG5-12 conjugate, but not LC3-II formation, is critical for viral replication. Altogether, these findings suggest that although HCV needs the elongation complex for its replication, it has developed a mechanism to avoid canonical LC3-II accumulation at viral replication site.