Megan A. Owen

Seasonal and diurnal dynamics of glucocorticoids and behavior in giant pandas

Abstract Because of the suppressive effect of stress on reproduction and health, it is important to evaluate potential stressors that may compromise captive breeding programs for endangered species. However, behavioral and physiological measures of stress are sometimes difficult to interpret, and their relationship to stress can be obscured by factors unrelated to stress, such as seasonal and diurnal patterns. Here we present findings for daily and seasonal variation in glucocorticoid (GC) secretion and behavior from a 6-year study of 2 giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). In the American black bear (Ursus americanus), seasonal patterns of corticoid secretion are putatively linked to metabolic demands of hibernation. Although pandas do not hibernate, we have found a similar pattern of GC dynamics. Using radioimmunoassay of urinary GC metabolites, we found seasonal variation in GC levels in an adult female and an adult male panda. As in black bears, winter and spring GC levels were significantly higher than summer levels. Additionally, in the female, GC levels during the period of parental care and lactation were higher, regardless of calendar season, than during other periods. Diurnal patterns were also detected in both the female and male panda, with elevated GCs in the morning sample. However, these diurnal patterns were not evident during the fall and summer months. Daily levels of several behaviors potentially indicative of stress also varied significantly with season in both male and female. Additionally seasonal dynamics of feeding behavior were documented. In the female, periods of elevated and diminished appetite were associated with embryonic diapause and post-implantation, respectively. The male had elevated feeding during the fall. Although these patterns are instructive for comparison with other species, we urge caution because our limited sample size does not allow us to extrapolate beyond the individuals studied.

Research Priorities from Animal Behaviour for Maximising Conservation Progress

Poor communication between academic researchers and wildlife managers limits conservation progress and innovation. As a result, input from overlapping fields, such as animal behaviour, is underused in conservation management despite its demonstrated utility as a conservation tool and countless papers advocating its use. Communication and collaboration across these two disciplines are unlikely to improve without clearly identified management needs and demonstrable impacts of behavioural-based conservation management. To facilitate this process, a team of wildlife managers and animal behaviour researchers conducted a research prioritisation exercise, identifying 50 key questions that have great potential to resolve critical conservation and management problems. The resulting agenda highlights the diversity and extent of advances that both fields could achieve through collaboration.

A systematic survey of the integration of animal behavior into conservation

The role of behavioral ecology in improving wildlife conservation and management has been the subject of much recent debate. We sought to answer 2 foundational questions about the current use of behavioral knowledge in conservation: To what extent is behavioral knowledge used in wildlife conservation and management, and how does the use of animal behavior differ among conservation fields in both frequency and types of use? We searched the literature for intersections between key fields of animal behavior and conservation and created a systematic heat map (i.e., graphical representation of data where values are represented as colors) to visualize relative efforts. Some behaviors, such as dispersal and foraging, were commonly considered (mean [SE] of 1147.38 [353.11] and 439.44 [108.85] papers per cell, respectively). In contrast, other behaviors, such as learning, social, and antipredatory behaviors were rarely considered (mean [SE] of 33.88 [7.62], 44.81 [10.65], and 22.69 [6.37] papers per cell, respectively). In many cases, awareness of the importance of behavior did not translate into applicable management tools. Our results challenge previous suggestions that there is little association between the fields of behavioral ecology and conservation and reveals tremendous variation in the use of different behaviors in conservation. We recommend that researchers focus on examining underutilized intersections of behavior and conservation themes for which preliminary work shows a potential for improving conservation and management, translating behavioral theory into applicable and testable predictions, and creating systematic reviews to summarize the behavioral evidence within the behavior-conservation intersections for which many studies exist.

A systematic survey of the integration of behavior into wildlife conservation and management

The role of behavioral ecology in improving wildlife conservation and management has been the subject of much recent debate. We sought to answer 2 foundational questions about the current use of behavioral knowledge in conservation: To what extent is behavioral knowledge used in wildlife conservation and management, and how does the use of animal behavior differ among conservation fields in both frequency and types of use? We searched the literature for intersections between key fields of animal behavior and conservation and created a systematic heat map (i.e., graphical representation of data where values are represented as colors) to visualize relative efforts. Some behaviors, such as dispersal and foraging, were commonly considered (mean [SE] of 1147.38 [353.11] and 439.44 [108.85] papers per cell, respectively). In contrast, other behaviors, such as learning, social, and antipredatory behaviors were rarely considered (mean [SE] of 33.88 [7.62], 44.81 [10.65], and 22.69 [6.37] papers per cell, respectively). In many cases, awareness of the importance of behavior did not translate into applicable management tools. Our results challenge previous suggestions that there is little association between the fields of behavioral ecology and conservation and reveals tremendous variation in the use of different behaviors in conservation. We recommend that researchers focus on examining underutilized intersections of behavior and conservation themes for which preliminary work shows a potential for improving conservation and management, translating behavioral theory into applicable and testable predictions, and creating systematic reviews to summarize the behavioral evidence within the behavior-conservation intersections for which many studies exist.

Developing effective tools for conservation behaviorists: reply to Greggor et al.

Many conservation and management problems can benefit from mechanistic insights into how animals respond to stimuli and learn about biologically important events [1]. The growing attention toward using cognition to solve real world conservation/management issues is exciting and promising. We applaud the thoughtful review of Greggor et al. of the relevant cognitive mechanisms that could be applied to current conservation and management issues. While the authors effectively communicate ‘why’ it is useful to integrate the two fields, we feel that they fall short of providing concrete ideas on ‘how’ cognitive mechanisms can be applied in the real world.

On thin ice: Climate change and the future of Polar Bears

introduction The Polar Bear is undoubtedly the “poster child” for climate change and is the focus of increasing media attention. The nightly news regularly depicts a lonely Polar Bear isolated on a small iceberg floating out to sea, implicitly on a course to extinction. The Polar Bear is also emerging as the most political of all animals, as some would use its listing as a protected species to provide legal clout to reduce carbon emissions held responsible for climate change. But what does science have to say about the predicament of the Polar Bear and its arctic ecosystem? Here we review recent scientific evidence bearing on this question and find that the “real truth” may not be too disparate from the dire predictions found readily in the media. An extensive science-based management program has been answering questions crucial to Polar Bear management and is bringing greater public attention to the issue of climate change and the arctic ecosystem in which the Polar Bear resides.

Giant pandas use odor cues to discriminate kin from nonkin

Abstract Sociality is an important factor in both the mechanism and function of kin recognition, yet it is little explored in solitary species. While there may be future opportunities for nepotistic functions of kin discrimination among solitary species, the ability to discriminate kin from nonkin may still have important roles in social regulation. The solitary giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca offers a good model system to explore kin discrimination in a solitary mammal. As kin discrimination in many other mammals is olfactorily mediated, we investigated whether giant pandas are able to discriminate odor cues from daughters even after months and years of separation. Our results indicate that giant pandas are capable of discriminating between kin and nonkin using odor cues available in urine and body odor. Daughters preferentially investigated the odors of unrelated adult female pandas over the odors of their mothers, and mothers spent more time investigating the odors of unrelated age-matched female pandas over those from their daughters. Because these studies were conducted months or years after the mother–daughter period of dependency ended, it is still unclear what mechanism is used for recognition. Long-term olfactory memories and phenotype matching should both be considered, and further studies are required for such determination.

The influence of ambient noise on maternal behavior in a Bornean sun bear (Helarctos malayanus euryspilus)

Anthropogenic noise has become a pervasive feature of both marine and terrestrial habitats worldwide. While a comprehensive understanding of the biologically significant impacts of noise on wildlife is lacking, concerns regarding its influence persist. Noise is also a common feature in the zoological setting, and much can be learned regarding the species-typical response to ambient noise by studying animals in captivity. Here we correlate behavioral and vocal patterns in a Bornean sun bear (Helarctos malayanus euryspilus) mother and cub with ambient noise levels during the 6-month post-partum period. We hypothesized that loud ambient noise would be correlated with changes in behavior, and predicted that noise would be negatively correlated with maternal care behavior, potentially masking cub vocalizations or providing a distraction to the mother. Contrary to expectation, we found that the mother spent significantly more time attending to her cub (P=0.03) on loud days. We also found that she tended to spend less time feeding (P=0.08); however her time spent resting was not affected. The cub was approximately twice as vocal on loud days, although these results were not statistically significant (humming: P=0.10; squawks/cries: P=0.14). Taken together, these results suggest that the behavioral response to ambient noise may have potential energetic costs, and as a result efforts should be made to reduce ambient noise exposure during the post-partum period.

Signalling behaviour is influenced by transient social context in a spontaneously ovulating mammal

Behavioural flexibility may be a mechanism that confers resilience in the face of rapid environmental changes. However, behavioural flexibility is constrained by a number of factors, including physiology. Giant pandas, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, are an endangered ursid found in fragmented habitats at social densities far below their historical carrying capacity. Giant pandas use chemical, visual and acoustic signals to communicate during reproduction. Females are seasonally mono-oestrous, ovulate spontaneously and, thus, fertility and sexual receptivity are temporally constrained. However, because signalling behaviour is energetically costly, the ability to adjust signalling effort according to the presence of an appropriate receiver would be beneficial. Using female giant pandas at the Wolong Breeding Centre in Sichuan, China, we explored the interaction between social context and reproductive status on signalling and maintenance behaviours. To do so, we used linear mixed models and an information-theoretic approach to assess the temporal relationship between signalling behaviours and the timing of first mating. Our results show that signalling behaviour is correlated with time relative to first mating and that multimodal signalling was the best predictor of this timing. Furthermore, we found that social context also influenced signalling behaviours. Specifically, vocal and visual signalling effort were lower in the exclusive presence of other females, reducing the degree of wasted effort. Thus, in spite of the temporal constraints that spontaneous ovulation might impose on sexually proceptive and receptive behaviour, females can modify their behavioural efforts during the preovulatory period according to the prevailing social context. As an iconic endangered species, the giant panda may benefit from research that informs management. Our study provides information that can be applied to increase the success of conservation breeding efforts and their associated reintroduction programmes.

Behavioral audiogram of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): Preliminary results

We used behavioral techniques to assess the hearing sensitivity of four, critically endangered, giant pandas at the San Diego Zoo. Study subjects included one adult male (age 19), two adult females (ages 5 and 19), and one sub-adult female (age 3). We used a down-up staircase presentation order and a go/no-go response paradigm and thus far have measured hearing thresholds between 250 Hz and 31.5 kHz. Test stimuli were 500 ms shaped tones, and catch trials represented 30% of presentations. All subjects were trained using positive reinforcement. Preliminary results suggest that giant pandas have good hearing sensitivity between 8 and 14 kHz, and best sensitivity was centered at 12.5 kHz. Low frequency hearing sensitivity declined at 250 Hz for all subjects. All bears retained functional hearing at 31.5 kHz: the younger females could hear tones as low as 15 dB, and the adults could hear to 25 dB. Preliminary results suggest that panda hearing sensitivity is similar to that of other terrestrial carnivores stu...