Megan Littrell

Monitoring fever treatment behaviour and equitable access to effective medicines in the context of initiatives to improve ACT access: baseline results and implications for programming in six African countries

BackgroundAccess to artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) remains limited in high malaria-burden countries, and there are concerns that the poorest people are particularly disadvantaged. This paper presents new evidence on household treatment-seeking behaviour in six African countries. These data provide a baseline for monitoring interventions to increase ACT coverage, such as the Affordable Medicines Facility for malaria (AMFm).MethodsNationally representative household surveys were conducted in Benin, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Madagascar, Nigeria, Uganda and Zambia between 2008 and 2010. Caregivers responded to questions about management of recent fevers in children under five. Treatment indicators were tabulated across countries, and differences in case management provided by the public versus private sector were examined using chi-square tests. Logistic regression was used to test for association between socioeconomic status and 1) malaria blood testing, and 2) ACT treatment.ResultsFever treatment with an ACT is low in Benin (10%), the DRC (5%), Madagascar (3%) and Nigeria (5%), but higher in Uganda (21%) and Zambia (21%). The wealthiest children are significantly more likely to receive ACT compared to the poorest children in Benin (OR = 2.68, 95% CI = 1.12-6.42); the DRC (OR = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.12-4.24); Madagascar (OR = 5.37, 95% CI = 1.58-18.24); and Nigeria (OR = 6.59, 95% CI = 2.73-15.89). Most caregivers seek treatment outside of the home, and private sector outlets are commonly the sole external source of treatment (except in Zambia). However, children treated in the public sector are significantly more likely to receive ACT treatment than those treated in the private sector (except in Madagascar). Nonetheless, levels of testing and ACT treatment in the public sector are low. Few caregivers name the national first-line drug as most effective for treating malaria in Madagascar (2%), the DRC (2%), Nigeria (4%) and Benin (10%). Awareness is higher in Zambia (49%) and Uganda (33%).ConclusionsLevels of effective fever treatment are low and inequitable in many contexts. The private sector is frequently accessed however case management practices are relatively poor in comparison with the public sector. Supporting interventions to inform caregiver demand for ACT and to improve provider behaviour in both the public and private sectors are needed to achieve maximum gains in the context of improved access to effective treatment.

Population-Wide Malaria Testing and Treatment with Rapid Diagnostic Tests and Artemether-Lumefantrine in Southern Zambia: A Community Randomized Step-Wedge Control Trial Design

Reducing the human reservoir of malaria parasites is critical for elimination. We conducted a community randomized controlled trial in Southern Province, Zambia to assess the impact of three rounds of a mass test and treatment (MTAT) intervention on malaria prevalence and health facility outpatient case incidence using random effects logistic regression and negative binomial regression, respectively. Following the intervention, children in the intervention group had lower odds of a malaria infection than individuals in the control group (adjusted odds ratio = 0.47, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.24–0.90). Malaria outpatient case incidence decreased 17% in the intervention group relative to the control group (incidence rate ratio = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.68–1.01). Although a single year of MTAT reduced malaria prevalence and incidence, the impact of the intervention was insufficient to reduce transmission to a level approaching elimination where a strategy of aggressive case investigations could be used. Mass drug administration, more sensitive diagnostics, and gametocidal drugs may potentially improve interventions targeting the human reservoir of malaria parasites.

Narrowing the treatment gap with equitable access: mid-term outcomes of a community case management program in Cameroon

Coverage of case management interventions remains low and inadequate to achieve millennium development goal (MDG) target reductions in child mortality. Children living in the poorest households are particularly disadvantaged. Community case management (CCM) uses trained and supervised community health workers to improve access to, quality of and demand for effective case management. Evidence that CCM programs can achieve equitable improvements in coverage is limited. This cross-sectional study uses a quasi-experimental design with intervention and comparison areas. Outcomes of a CCM program for malaria and diarrhoea operating in two districts of Cameroon were measured after 1 year of implementation. A household census (N = 16 954) provided measurement of treatment-seeking behaviour for recent episodes of fever and diarrhoea. Results were compared between areas using chi-square tests. Intervention-area children with fever or diarrhoea were nearly nine times more likely to receive treatment with artemisinin combination therapy or oral rehydration salts, respectively, vs neighbouring comparison-area children. High levels of effective treatment were equitable across socioeconomic status in intervention areas, whereas disparities were observed in neighbouring comparison areas. CCM can achieve rapid and equitable improvements in coverage of case management for malaria and diarrhoea, and is a promising strategy for achieving MDG 4. Improved access to treatment, quality of care and caregiver demand were achieved in two districts of Cameroon. CCM must be scaled up to demonstrate outcomes and impact at scale.

The influence of orphan care and other household shocks on health status over time: a longitudinal study of children's caregivers in rural Malawi

In the context of rising rates of orphanhood in AIDS-affected settings, very little is understood about implications for caregiver well-being given increasing and intensifying responsibilities for the care of orphaned children. Emotional distress and self-reported health status as well as shifts in household orphan care, wealth, food security and recent illness and death among household members were measured among a panel of 1219 caregivers in rural Malawi between 2007 and 2009. Logistic regression was used to identify predictors of improved and diminished caregiver health and emotional distress. Results suggest that becoming an orphan caregiver is associated with a shift from good to poor health status (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=2.29, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.16–4.54), and that elevated levels of distress and poor health both persist over time in comparison with care for non-orphans only. Once engaged in orphan care, taking on additional orphans is associated with increased emotional distress in relation to not caring for orphans (AOR=3.16, 95% CI=1.30–7.73) as well as in relation to maintaining the same number of orphans in care over time (AOR=2.84, 95% CI=1.04–7.70). In addition, findings illustrate the strong influence of household wealth and food security on caregiver well-being. Food insecurity and poverty that persist or develop over time are associated with increasing distress. Conversely, maintenance or improvement in food security and household wealth are associated with decreases in distress. Providing all aspects of household maintenance and care for children, primary caregivers are key to the extended family solution for orphaned and vulnerable children. Bolstering the foundation of rural African families to ensure care and protection of these children involves targeting support to orphan caregivers but must also include addressing the issues of poverty and food insecurity that pose a wider threat to caregiving capacity.

“Souls of the ancestor that knock us out” and other tales. A qualitative study to identify demand-side factors influencing malaria case management in Cambodia

BackgroundAppropriate case management of suspected malaria in Cambodia is critical given anti-malarial drug resistance in the region. Improving diagnosis and the use of recommended malarial treatments is a challenge in Cambodia where self-treatment and usage of drug cocktails is widespread, a notable difference from malaria treatment seeking in other countries. This qualitative study adds to the limited evidence base on Cambodian practices, aiming to understand the demand-side factors influencing treatment-seeking behaviour, including the types of home treatments, perceptions of cocktail medicines and reasons for diagnostic testing. The findings may help guide intervention design.MethodsThe study used in-depth interviews (IDIs) (N = 16) and focus group discussions (FGDs) (N = 12) with Cambodian adults from malaria-endemic areas who had experienced malaria fever in the previous two weeks. Data were analysed using NVivo software.ResultsFindings suggest that Cambodians initially treat suspected malaria at home with home remedies and traditional medicines. When seeking treatment outside the home, respondents frequently reported receiving a cocktail of medicines from trusted providers. Cocktails are perceived as less expensive and more effective than full-course, pre-packaged medicines. Barriers to diagnostic testing include a belief in the ability to self-diagnose based on symptoms, cost and reliance on providers to recommend a test. Factors that facilitate testing include recommendation by trusted providers and a belief that anti-malarial treatment for illnesses other than malaria can be harmful.ConclusionsTreatment-seeking behaviour for malaria in Cambodia is complex, driven by cultural norms, practicalities and episode-related factors. Effective malaria treatment programmes will benefit from interventions and communication materials that leverage these demand-side factors, promoting prompt visits to facilities for suspected malaria and challenging patients’ misconceptions about the effectiveness of cocktails. Given the importance of the patient-provider interaction and the pivotal role that providers play in ensuring the delivery of appropriate malaria care, future research and interventions should also focus on the supply side factors influencing provider behaviour.

Gogo care and protection of vulnerable children in rural Malawi: changing responsibilities, capacity to provide, and implications for well-being in the era of HIV and AIDS.

The role of older women in the care and protection of vulnerable children in sub-Saharan Africa may be changing given increasing rates of orphanhood due to AIDS. Concern regarding their capacity to provide for children and implications for their health and well-being dominate the literature. However, studies have not yet examined the situation of older caregivers in comparison to their younger counterparts over time. In this study, panel data on 1,219 caregivers in rural Malawi between 2007 and 2009 is complemented by in-depth interview (N = 62) and group discussion (N = 4) data. Caregiver responsibilities, capacity to care for children, and implications for well-being are examined. Chi-square tests examine differences in these measures between older foster caregivers and younger foster caregivers, parents of orphans, and parents of non-orphans. Older women, in comparison with younger counterparts, are more stable as primary caregivers for orphans. Care by older women is particularly valued when younger family stability is threatened by burdens of orphan care. Qualitative data reveal many challenges that older caregivers face, most notably provision of food. However, survey data suggest that the capacity to provide food, schooling and other basic needs is similar among older and younger caregivers. Self-reported health status is generally poorer among older caregivers, however levels of emotional distress and social capital are similar among older and younger caregivers. Providing care for children in old age appears to entail a number of benefits. Older women committed to providing care and protection for children are important assets, particularly in the context of threats to child well-being due to HIV and AIDS. Bolstering older caregivers with material and social support to help sustain their key roles in fostering is a promising avenue for maintaining extended family responses to HIV and AIDS.

Getting to FP2020: Harnessing the private sector to increase modern contraceptive access and choice in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and DRC

Background An estimated 214 million women have unmet need for family planning in developing regions. Improved utilization of the private sector is key to achieving universal access to a range of safe and effective modern contraceptive methods stipulated by FP2020 and SDG commitments. Until now, a lack of market data has limited understanding of the private sector’s role in increasing contraceptive coverage and choice. Methods In 2015, the FPwatch Project conducted representative outlet surveys in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and DRC using a full census approach in selected administrative areas. Every public and private sector outlet with the potential to sell or distribute modern contraceptives was approached. In outlets with modern contraceptives, product audits and provider interviews assessed contraceptive market composition, availability, and price. Findings Excluding general retailers, 96% of potential outlets in Ethiopia, 55% in Nigeria, and 41% in DRC had modern contraceptive methods available. In Ethiopia, 41% of modern contraceptive stocking outlets were in the private sector compared with approximately 80% in Nigeria and DRC where drug shops were dominant. Ninety-five percent of private sector outlets in Ethiopia had modern contraceptive methods available; 37% had three or more methods. In Nigeria and DRC, only 54% and 42% of private sector outlets stocked modern contraceptives with 5% and 4% stocking three or more methods, respectively. High prices in Nigeria and DRC create barriers to consumer access and choice. Discussion There is a missed opportunity to provide modern contraception through the private sector, particularly drug shops. Subsidies and interventions, like social marketing and social franchising, could leverage the private sector’s role in increasing access to a range of contraceptives. Achieving global FP2020 commitments depends on the expansion of national contraceptive policies that promote greater partnership and cooperation with the private sector and improvement of decisions around funding streams of countries with large populations and high unmet need like Ethiopia, Nigeria, and DRC.

Antimalarial market composition and performance in Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo: results from 2013 ACTwatch outlet surveys

Background Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) together account for one-third of the estimated global total of malaria cases and 40% of malaria deaths. Improving health system performance in these countries is critical for reducing the global malaria burden. In both countries, fever treatment-seeking in the private sector is very common. Antimalarial medicine outlet surveys conducted in Nigeria and the DRC in 2009 documented antimalarial markets dominated by informal drug stores and high nonartemisinin monotherapy (non-AMT) availability and market share, as well as moderate availability of oral AMT. 2011 findings from Nigeria showed improved artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) availability and market share, but continued availability and distribution of oral AMT. 2013 data were collected to inform and monitor ongoing strategy and funding decisions to improve malaria case management.